Bibliographie sélective OHADA

L'Internet est devenu une partie essentielle de la vie moderne. Un développement important est «l'Internet des objets» (IoT), qui connecte des dispositifs physiques à Internet. Plus récemment, un concept plus large est apparu: «l'Internet de tout» (IoE), intégrant quatre composantes, les personnes, les processus, les données et les objets. L'ajout de l'intelligence artificielle (IA) à l'IoE a donné naissance à «l'Intelligence Artificielle de Tout» (IAdT). Cette combinaison offre des avantages significatifs pour le secteur de l'énergie en optimisant la production, la distribution et la consommation d'énergie. Cependant, elle soulève également des défis critiques en matière de protection des données, de cybersécurité et de localisation des données. Dans cette thèse, j'explore comment les gouvernements et les entreprises énergétiques peuvent collaborer pour répondre aux risques liés à la confidentialité et à la cybersécurité des technologies IAdT. J'analyse également les exigences de localisation des données et j'examine les cadres réglementaires pertinents, en particulier au sein de l'Union européenne (avec un accent sur l'Irlande) et au Canada (y compris la province de l'Ontario). The Internet has become an essential part of modern life. One significant development is the “Internet of Things” (IoT), which connects physical devices to the Internet. More recently, a broader concept has emerged: the “Internet of Everything” (IoE), which integrates four key components: people, processes, data, and things. The addition of artificial intelligence (AI) to IoE has given rise to the "Artificial Intelligence of Everything" (AIoE). This combination offers significant benefits to the energy sector by optimizing energy production, distribution, and consumption. However, it also introduces critical challenges related to data protection, cybersecurity, and data localization. In this thesis, I explore how governments and energy companies can collaborate to address privacy and cybersecurity risks associated with AIoE technologies. I also analyze data localization requirements and review relevant regulatory frameworks, particularly within the European Union (with a focus on Ireland) and Canada (including the province of Ontario).

The book asks whether the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Generative AI (GenAI) in international arbitration represents a revolution or an evolution of the international dispute resolution landscape. Critically engaging with the transformative impact of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), this book focuses on the integration of AI and GenAI into international commercial arbitration. Set against the backdrop of rapid technological advancement, it explores how arbitral tribunals and stakeholders are cautiously yet progressively adopting these innovations in a manner that respects and preserves the foundational principles of arbitration. Through an interdisciplinary and practice-oriented approach, the book examines the evolving role of AI in arbitration. It analyzes how AI is perceived and applied by parties, arbitral institutions, and arbitrators, as well as assesses the legal frameworks in place to govern it. Offering a balanced analysis of both the opportunities and legal and ethical dilemmas posed by emerging technologies, the book asks if a duty of disclosure is relevant in relation to AI use, and what challenges this might entail. It also covers the status of AI-generated arbitral awards under international law, as well as copyright law. This book will be of interest to researchers in the field of international arbitration and commercial law

Cette thèse examine le traitement par la régulation européenne de la problématique des injustices structurelles sociales liées aux grands réseaux sociaux. Pour ce faire, elle opère une synthèse de nombreuses recherches empiriques qui mettent en évidence les inégalités dans la gouvernance des contenus, et s'appuie sur des perspectives théoriques tirées de la philosophie politique, de la théorie juridique féministe, et des recherches en droit et économie politique. Elle présente trois lignes d'argumentation principales. Premièrement, le droit européen n'empêche pas les injustices telles que la discrimination dans la modération, les violences en ligne, ou la visibilité inégale des différents groupes sociaux, parce qu'il conceptualise ces inégalités d'une manière individualiste et formaliste, visant à protéger les droits d'individus particuliers et à assurer l'application des règles prédéfinies, tout en ignorant la nature systémique des inégalitésDeuxièmement, le droit contribue souvent activement aux injustices : par exemple, en permettant aux agences policières de demander la suppression des contenus pour des raisons politiques. Troisièmement, les aspects du cadre réglementaire qui sont perçus comme les plus à même de combattre les inégalités systémiques, à savoir les obligations autour de la gestion des risques et les principes des droits de l'homme, se révèlent en réalité peu capables d'empêcher les injustices structurelles. Ces deux éléments restent en effet inscrits dans un paradigme de régulation technocratique, dépolitisée, et favorable au marché, et excluent toute contestation réelle du pouvoir ou des pratiques commerciales des plateformes de « big tech ». This thesis analyses EU regulation of social media content governance, focusing on how the law addresses the impacts of the largest platforms on structural social injustice. To do so, it draws on theoretical perspectives from political philosophy, feminist and queer legal theory, and law and political economy, and synthesises a wide range of empirical scholarship that illuminates the unjust impacts of social media platforms' content governance. It makes three main arguments.First, EU law cannot effectively address unjust impacts - such as discriminatory content moderation, online violence, or the unequal visibility of different social groups - because it regulates them in a highly individualistic and formalistic way, focused on protecting individual rights and consistently applying predefined rules, which overlooks systemic inequalities and their connections to underlying political-economic structures. Second, moreover, the law often actively contributes to injustice: for example, by excluding minority perspectives from platform governance, or by making it easier for state institutions to target politically disfavoured content for removal. Third, the two aspects of the legal framework which are widely seen by experts as the most promising levers to address systemic inequalities and power disparities - risk management obligations, and human rights principles - are also incapable of counteracting these problems. They remain limited by a technocratic, depoliticised and marketised regulatory paradigm, which excludes genuine political contestation of the power of 'big tech' platforms to organise online content in line with their own commercial interests.

Since its innovation as a modern financial product in the 1970s, securitization has swept the global financial market. In 2000s, in order to ease China’s concentrated debt risks in the banking system and to improve the country’s imbalanced financial system, the Chinese government started to promote a trial program of securitization. An associated regulatory system was then created to facilitate the development of the Chinese securitization markets. Unlike regulations drafted and applied in North America, where an ex-ante regulatory analysis procedure and an ex-post evaluation system are installed, the current Chinese securitization regulation system is built mainly upon a basis of trial and interim rules. In other words, Chinese regulations regarding securitization were not comprehensively assessed before their adoption and there has been no systemic ex-post evaluation of the current securitization regulatory system in the past 20 years. This raises the question of whether the Chinese securitization regulation system facilitates the achievement of its regulatory objectives. The author purports to answer this question using three tools: The theory of regulation, legal historical analysis of law, and comparative law. To begin the analysis, the author designs an analytical framework based on the theory of regulation to evaluate Chinese regulations on securitization. In this evaluative framework, perspectives and criteria are stipulated to guide and draw the boundary of the evaluation. While applying the analytical framework, the author reviews the development of the Chinese securitization regulatory system over the past 20 years. The author studies the historical context of regulations established and regulatory modifications adopted in order to assess whether the logic embedded in the current Chinese securitization regulatory system is still valid. To better evaluate the Chinese securitization regulatory system, the author also applies a micro comparison of certain Chinese securitization regulations with their counterparts in North America. The purpose of this comparison is also to understand whether the Chinese characteristics in Chinese securitization regulations facilitate the achievement of its regulatory objectives. At the end of this assessment, the author provides a report to find the merits and disadvantages of Chinese securitization regulatory system. Due to the evaluative nature of this research, no demonstrated solutions are proposed in this report. Depuis sa création dans les années 1970, la titrisation s’est répandue à travers le marché financier mondial. Dans les années 2000, le gouvernement chinois a commencé à promouvoir le programme de titrisation afin d'atténuer les risques liés à la concentration de la dette dans le système bancaire et d'améliorer un système financier déséquilibré. La règlementation associée a été mise en place pour faciliter le développement du marché chinois de la titrisation. Contrairement aux régles créées et appliquées en Amérique du Nord, qui suivent une analyse ex ante —c’est-à-dire avant leur adoption — et une évaluation ex post — soit après leur application pendant une certaine période, le système de réglementation de la titrisation actuellement en vigueur en Chine a été élaboré sur la base d’essais et de mesures provisoires. Autrement dit, la Chine ne s’est pas fondée sur une analyse ex ante approfondie, et n’a mené aucune évaluation systémique ex post de ses réglementations de la titrisation au cours des vingt dernières années. Ce système chinois de réglementation de la titrisation facilite-t-il ou non la réalisation de ses objectifs réglementaires ? L'auteur tente de répondre à cette question à partir de trois outils : la théorie de la réglementation, l’analyse historique du droit et le droit comparé. Pour commencer, l’auteur conçoit un cadre analytique basé sur la théorie de la réglementation pour évaluer les dispositions chinoises en matière de titrisation. Dans ce cadre d’évaluation, des perspectives et des critères sont proposés pour guider et délimiter l’évaluation. À la lumière de ce cadre analytique, l’auteur replace la réglementation chinoise de la titrisation dans son contexte historique et retrace les modifications apportées au cours de deux dernières décennies. Il s’agit ainsi d’évaluer si la logique qui a présidé à l’adoption de ces règles reste valide dans le contexte actuel. Mais pour mieux saisir les caractéristiques de la réglementation chinoise de la titrisation, l’auteur ajoute à cette analyse historique interne à la Chine des micro-comparaisons de la titrisation chinoise et de ses règles avec leurs homologues nord-américains dans différentes sections de cette thèse. C’est ainsi qu’il sera possible de voir si les caractéristiques chinoises de la réglementation en matière de titrisation facilitent ou non la réalisation de ses objectifs. Au terme de cette recherche évaluative, l’on proposera un rapport qui mettra en lumière les avantages et les inconvénients du système chinois. En raison de sa nature évaluative, cette thèse ne proposera aucune solution aux inconvénients repérés.

Under the aegis of efficiency and neutrality, algorithmic risk-assessment tools have been rapidly inserted into the realm of pretrial justice, promising scientific and objective prediction where presumption of innocence and scarce resources are pitted against each other. Their sprawl has been uneven and confined to looser pretrial rules than would govern similar proof at trial. These systems translate miscellaneous data into scores of “risk,” inviting courts to act on what might happen rather than on what has been proven, within a process already plagued by plea bargaining, racial disparity, and institutional asymmetry. This thesis argues that such tools do not merely constitute information about the defendant; they reorder what counts as usable knowledge and who is treated as a credible knower at the weakest stage of a criminal process. The thesis lays out how scores interact with judicial decision-making; how ostensibly neutral inputs (criminal history, prior contacts, residence, employment) can re-encode social disadvantage; and how opacity and trade-secret claims frustrate fundamental rights such as due process. The doctrinal analysis clarifies the boundary between regulation and punishment under United States v. Salerno, the demands of proportionality, and the significance of the presumption of innocence when decisions are predictive. A brief technical account explains why claims of “explainability” often exceed what such models can reliably demonstrate for legal purposes, but the core argument is juridical: claims of legitimacy must be substantiated by enforceable safeguards; falling short of that, systems described as ‘explainable' or ‘fair' remain as fancy adjectives. The thesis contends that the safeguards that govern the trial must be applied earlier in the criminal process, where liberty is already fragile. Accordingly, the thesis argues for invoking evidentiary rules early on: demonstrating reliability of the tools; reasoned judicial decisions that explain how any score was weighed against case-specific facts; meaningful opportunities for defence challenge; and, where appropriate, access to independent expertise to translate model outputs without displacing judicial authorship. The researcher is of the opinion that these emphases are necessary so that pretrial decisions remain individualised and proportionate and detention retains its status as an exceptional, non-punitive measure. Finally, it defends doubt as a juridical virtue, a disciplined moment of pause that reins in the allure of algorithmic certainty and reasserts judicial responsibility, so that the presumption of innocence and liberty remains the rule even in a predictive age. Sous l'égide de l'efficacité et de la neutralité, les outils algorithmiques d'évaluation du risque ont été rapidement introduits dans le domaine de la justice pré-procès, promettant une prédiction scientifique et objective là où la présomption d'innocence et la rareté des ressources se trouvent mises en tension. Leur déploiement a été inégal et s'est inscrit dans des règles pré-procès plus souples que celles qui régiraient des éléments de preuve similaires au stade du procès. Ces systèmes traduisent des données hétérogènes en scores de « risque », invitant les juridictions à agir en fonction de ce qui pourrait advenir plutôt que de ce qui a été prouvé, au sein d'un processus déjà marqué par le plaider-coupable, les disparités raciales et les asymétries institutionnelles. La présente thèse soutient que de tels outils ne constituent pas seulement une information relative au prévenu ; ils réorganisent ce qui compte comme connaissance mobilisable et déterminent qui est traité comme un sujet crédible de savoir au stade le plus fragile de la procédure pénale. Elle expose la manière dont les scores interagissent avec la prise de décision judiciaire ; comment des variables présentées comme neutres (antécédents judiciaires, contacts antérieurs avec la police, résidence, emploi) peuvent réencoder des désavantages sociaux ; et comment l'opacité ainsi que les revendications de secret commercial entravent des droits fondamentaux tels que le droit à une procédure régulière. L'analyse doctrinale précise la frontière entre régulation et punition au regard de l'arrêt United States v. Salerno, les exigences de proportionnalité et la portée de la présomption d'innocence lorsque les décisions sont de nature prédictive. Un bref exposé technique explique pourquoi les prétentions à « l'explicabilité » excèdent souvent ce que ces modèles peuvent démontrer de manière fiable à des fins juridiques, mais l'argument central demeure juridique : les revendications de légitimité doivent être étayées par des garanties effectives ; à défaut, les systèmes qualifiés d'« explicables » ou d'« équitables » ne demeurent que des adjectifs séduisants. La thèse soutient que les garanties gouvernant le procès doivent être appliquées plus en amont dans le processus pénal, là où la liberté est déjà fragile. En conséquence, elle plaide pour une mobilisation précoce des règles de preuve : démonstration de la fiabilité des outils ; décisions judiciaires motivées expliquant la manière dont tout score a été mis en balance avec les faits propres à l'affaire ; possibilités effectives de contestation par la défense ; et, le cas échéant, accès à une expertise indépendante permettant de traduire les résultats des modèles sans se substituer à l'autorité judiciaire. La chercheuse estime que ces exigences sont nécessaires afin que les décisions pré-procès demeurent individualisées et proportionnées, et que la détention conserve son caractère exceptionnel et non punitif. Enfin, la thèse défend le doute comme une vertu juridique, moment discipliné de suspension qui tempère l'attrait de la certitude algorithmique et réaffirme la responsabilité judiciaire, afin que la présomption d'innocence et la liberté demeurent la règle, y compris à l'ère prédictive.

Banks are regarded as special financial institutions because, apart from the various critical intermediary and other functions they fulfil in a financial system, the hallmark of their business models is receiving deposits from the public and using such deposits for extending loans against interest from which they make profit. Unlike other companies, banks are however vulnerable to loss of public confidence and remain exposed to various risks and failure. Banks are thus critically important actors in domestic and global financial systems, - thus their safety is critical to the maintenance of financial stability. As a result, banks are subject to stringent regulation and supervision to ensure their safety. Despite prudential regulation, the failure of banks remains a reality. If the risk of bank failure is not adequately addressed through appropriate regulation and supervision, , it may result in a financial crisis like the 2008 Global Financial Crisis (2008 GFC). Because banks play a special role in an economy and their failure may have an adverse impact on financial stability and depositors, this thesis aligns with the view expressed by academics and international organisations that there is a need for a special regime (lex specialis) to deal with the failure of banks since normal insolvency procedures are not suitable for this purpose. f. This is because bank failures require swift, timely intervention by a supervisor to resolve failing banks in an orderly and optimal manner to ensure the maintenance of financial stability, depositor protection and relegating bailouts with taxpayers’ money as a last resort. A very notable lesson that emanated from the 2008 GFC is the criticality of special resolution frameworks for banks; the need to balance the interests of shareholders, creditors, and depositors, while promoting financial stability objectives. As a result, the need for special resolution frameworks for banks which empowers Resolution Authorities with adequate resolution tools and powers to resolve a failing bank timeous and orderly , has become a legislative imperative in contemporary financial systems. To deal with bank failures in Namibia, the Banking Institutions Act, 2 of 1998 (the BIA 1998) contained provisions that allowed for the assumption of control and liquidation of a failed bank. However, the newly enacted Banking Institution Act 13 of 2023 (the BIA 2023 which repealed the BIA 1998) has changed that position and introduced a single provision in section 70 that provides for bank resolution. Until now, prior to the introduction of this very new statutory provision, all bank failures in Namibia were dealt with under the limited supervisory tools of the BIA 1998. This study seeks to determine whether section 70 of the BIA 2023, is sufficiently aligned with international best practice as captured in the Financial Stability Board’s Key Attributes of Effective Resolution Regimes for Financial Institutions (FSB KAs), issued in 2011, as updated in 2014 and 2024. Alternatively, if the regime introduced by the BIA 2023 does not adequately align with the FSB KAs it is then considered whether the new Namibian bank resolution framework requires to be strengthened further to better align it with the FSB KAs. To consider possible further reforms to the new Namibian bank resolution regime, this thesis considers the resolution frameworks in Germany and Nigeria by way of comparative studies to observe best practices.

Despite being part of Australian law for more than 30 years, the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (‘CISG’) has not secured the internationally minded interpretation that CISG art 7(1) requires. Australia’s international commercial arbitration (‘ICA’) laws, however, are routinely approached by Australian courts with an internationalist perspective, as their own interpretative rules require. It is tempting to conclude that Australia’s approach to interpreting its ICA laws is transferable to the CISG context. In this article I address a previously unexplored nuance affecting that conclusion. Australian courts routinely accept Singaporean, Hong Kong and New Zealand interpretative influence concerning ICA laws. In the CISG context, however, significantly less influence from those jurisdictions exists. That being so, I explore how Australia’s courts might better apply the CISG in an internationalist manner. First, I recommend that Australia’s courts emphasise to practitioners the need to consider the CISG’s application and its internationalist interpretation requirements. Second, I recommend that Australian courts use the amicus curiae procedure to solicit third party submissions addressing the CISG’s interpretation. Both techniques are applied by foreign courts in the ICA context and would assist Australian courts in discharging their CISG art 7(1) obligations.

From rationality to reality. The evolution of law and economics through the behavioral lens. Understanding how we choose: foundations of behavioral economics. Rethinking law through the lens of behavioral economics. Why law needs behavioral economics. The challenge of integrating behavioral economics into private law: freedom vs regulation. The double-edged sword of behavioral economics: protecting consumers from psychological manipulation. Balancing innovation and consumer rights: a global view on consumer protection in the EU, Italy and Colombia. Alternative dispute resolution and the judicial agreements. The justice system seen though behavioral economics. Judicial agreements: procedural autonomy and enhancing judicial cooperation. Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) and mediation: legal frameworks, party autonomy and behavioral economic. A brief comparative analysis on mediation: EU, Italy and Colombia. Applying behavioral economics in the ADR (mediation).

This study investigates how blockchain integration, regulatory policies, and the participation of institutional investors impact fintech innovation in Jordanian fintech companies. A descriptive analytical approach was used to evaluate and summarize the effects of these factors on innovation in the sector. An electronic survey was conducted among 125 administrative personnel working in Jordan's fintech industry. The results indicate a strong presence of blockchain adoption, involvement of institutional investors, and overall fintech innovation in these companies. However, the regulatory landscape in Jordan's fintech sector was found to be moderate. Furthermore, the analysis reveals that both blockchain integration and the regulatory framework significantly influence fintech innovation, with a significance level of 0.05. In light of these findings, the study suggests the creation of strategies to promote blockchain adoption, aiming to enhance efficiency and innovation in the industry.

This study focuses on both domestic and foreign investment as indicators of economic growth in an emerging market context, examining the effects of tax reforms on investment decisions in Ghana from 1985 to 2020. The research employs a time-series analysis to integrate control variables like inflation, gross capital formation, and base rate, revealing their significant influence on investment activity in tandem with tax policy changes. Unlike previous research that mostly uses gross fixed capital formation as a proxy for investment, this study includes a wider range of investment types, giving a more complete picture of how the economy works. We did unit root and co-integration tests, which showed that the variables were first-order co-integrated. We performed the model estimate using a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) and Granger causality tests. Results reveal that tax reforms have a measurable impact on investment patterns, underscoring the importance of adaptive tax policies in promoting sustainable economic development. The findings contribute to the broader literature on investment and fiscal policy in emerging economies, offering insights for policy-makers on optimizing tax strategies to encourage investment and drive economic growth.

Trademarks are economic tools that aid businesses to communicate with their customers and capture a vast section of the population. Trademarks are only useful when used efficiently in the course of trade, meaning the higher the reputation of the mark, the more consumers want to associate themselves to the products or services the mark is affixed upon. This study examines the criteria to own a trademark and how ownership claims are handled between the African Organisation of Intellectual property as known by its French acronym OAPI and the competent domestic courts found at the level of Member States which has become a breathing ground for confusion in the resolution of disputes. Due to both bodies having concurrent jurisdiction in dispute resolution, the cost has become unbearable on trademark owners or beneficiaries of an exclusive license of exploitation, coupled with inconsistency in judgements from the two structures. The article highlights some key improvements expanding trademark subject matter and provides information on how the two institutions cited above handle matters of jurisdiction based on case law. The article also brings to the limelight how the OAPI administrative litigation bodies can collaborate with the competent domestic courts to arrive at clear and concise decisions. In conclusion the paper provides some recommendations on bridging the gap between both jurisdictions in order to attain the objectives of all parties involved.

Zimbabwean financial sector has experienced significant periods of financial distress as depicted by numerous bank failures since 1980. Bank failure occurs when a financial institution experiences significant financial distress, rendering it incapable of fulfilling its obligations to depositors, shareholders and other stakeholders. In other words, bank failure is when a financial institution undergoes substantial financial distress rendering it unable to meet its obligations as they become due. In this thesis, the researcher adopted the definition of bank failure which refers to a situation where a bank is in financial distress and is recapitalised either by the central bank or a strategic investor, acquired by another institution, surrenders its license or the license is suspended, or it closes its operations altogether. This thesis reveals that in Zimbabwe bank failures can be attributed to various factors including the failure of regulatory and supervisory systems to detect irregularities in the operations of banking institutions. In addition, poor corporate governance practices such as inadequate oversight, inexperienced management, undue influence by dominant shareholders, nonperforming loans, excessive risk-taking, abusive related party transactions and noncompliance with laws are commonly cited as causes of bank failures in Zimbabwe. Bank failures often pose negative implications to the banking sector and banking stakeholders such as depositors and investors. This owes to the fact that banks serve as intermediaries that facilitate the avenues for deposits and extend credit services to individuals and the production sector of the economy. It is submitted that the proper functioning of banks requires effective and adequate regulatory supervision. Failure to provide robust and effective regulation of banks could lead to bank failures. This thesis presents a comparative analysis of the banking statutory framework of Zimbabwe and those of the UK and South Africa to determine if the banking laws in Zimbabwe are robust enough to prevent bank failures. The thesis reveals that the banking statutory framework in Zimbabwe is not robust enough to curb bank failures in times of stress because it lacks effective regulatory oversight. This thesis further reveals that poor banking regulation, inconsistent enforcement, weak regulatory insolvency procedures, and inadequate supervision framework are some of the weaknesses in the current banking statutory framework which needs to be rectified in order to combat bank failures effectively in Zimbabwe. The Banking Act does not fully incorporate the international best standards on bank supervision to prevent bank failures. Consequently, the banking statutory framework in Zimbabwe does not comprehensively and effectively provide for the prevention of bank failures like those of the UK and South Africa. The robustness of the banking statutory framework is in providing adequate and effective regulatory provisions and enforcement mechanisms that curb bank failures in Zimbabwe. The researcher proposes the adoption of a new model, the Zimbabwean twin peaks model, comprising the Zimbabwean Prudential Regulatory Authority and the Zimbabwean Financial Sector Conduct Authority. It is argued that if the adoption of the twin peaks model is considered and robustly implemented, it can prevent the causes of bank failures in Zimbabwe.

L'Europe a été à l'avant-garde de l'éthique de l'intelligence artificielle (IA), en élaborant des chartes et des principes non contraignants sur l'IA « digne de confiance ». Le terme « digne de confiance » est utilisé par l'Europe pour désigner les systèmes d'IA qui sont « éthiques », « légaux » et « techniquement robustes ». L'Europe a complété ces principes non contraignants par un texte de loi sur l'IA, connu sous le nom de règlement sur l'IA, ou AI Act. Le règlement sur l'IA est l'un des premiers cadres légaux au monde à réglementer les systèmes d'IA dans différents secteurs et cas d'utilisation, en mettant l'accent sur la sécurité et la protection des droits fondamentaux. Pour les questions opérationnelles, le règlement sur l'IA s'appuie principalement sur des normes techniques en cours d'élaboration. L'approche européenne combine donc trois niveaux d'instruments réglementaires : les chartes éthiques de l'IA, le règlement sur l'IA et les normes techniques.L'approche par la normalisation est traditionnelle dans le domaine de la sécurité des produits, mais dans le règlement sur l'IA, les normes sont également censées répondre aux préoccupations en matière de droits fondamentaux. Pour éviter de faire des choix normatifs difficiles, les organismes de normalisation jouent la carte de la sécurité en élaborant des normes qui restent à un niveau élevé. De plus, dans le cadre du règlement sur l'IA, la responsabilité de l'élaboration des normes techniques est déléguée à des organismes de normalisation privés, où les grandes entreprises multinationales sont surreprésentées et exercent une influence considérable. Ces normes sont également généralement payantes, bien que la situation puisse évoluer dans les années à venir après une récente jurisprudence de la Cour de justice de l'Union européenne. Les experts en normalisation sont donc sous pression pour fournir des normes à temps et de bonne qualité. Europe has been at the forefront of Artificial Intelligence (AI) ethics, developing non-binding charters and principles on "trustworthy'' AI. The term "trustworthiness'' is used by Europe to designate AI systems that are "ethical'', "legal'' and "technically robust''. Europe has supplemented these non-binding principles with a binding regulation on AI, known as the AI Act. The AI Act is one of the world's first comprehensive frameworks for regulating AI systems across different industries and use cases, focusing on safety and protection of fundamental rights. The AI Act relies, for operational questions, mostly on technical standards that are in the course of development. The European approach thus combines three layers of regulatory instruments: AI ethics charters, the AI Act and technical standards.The standardisation approach is traditional in product safety, but under the AI Act, standards are also expected to address fundamental rights concerns. To avoid making hard normative choices, standardisation organisations are playing it safe, developing standards which remain at a high-level. Moreover, under the AI Act, the responsibility for developing technical standards is delegated to private standardisation bodies, where large multinational companies are over-represented and hold significant influence. These standards are also often locked behind paywalls, although the situation may evolve in the coming years after a recent case law from the Court of Justice of the European Union. Standardisation experts therefore face pressures to deliver standards on time and of good quality.

The significant increase in the development of world economy over the last few decades have been experienced a considerable increase in the number of commercial disputes. When there is any business and dealings with contracts the question of dispute must be happened. But all of the parties actually want to run their business well and smoothly. In recent world a massive part of global economy depends on the trans-border business. But disputes in such business dealings sometimes can be the reasons to become risk the inter-relation of those parties. Which can affect the global economy as a whole. Comparing to the disputes inside domestic entities the trans-border or international business disputes can arise as bigger problem because of different jurisdictions, diverse legal systems and tradition. International Court of Justice (ICJ) already has the jurisdiction to try all the international civil suits but Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanism also considered as a viable alternative to resolve the dispute over the court. The international arbitration arises as a way of alternative dispute resolution mechanism which upraise benefits both of the parties and maintain the confidentiality. In this paper details of international arbitration and the broader impact of this mechanism in the global business economy will be focused. The legal status and the implementation process of international arbitration also be the discussing point of this paper.

This article seeks to examine the extent to which users of e-banking services are protected in Cameroon. Over the past decades financial transactions have gradually emerged from traditional methods to modern forms of banking. The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has transformed the banking system into a digital arena. With e-banking, customers can access their bank accounts, transfer funds, pay bills, and check their accounts balances. Banks serve as the backbone of every modern economy and should be protected. The development of e-banking in the 1980s with the aid of ICT has rendered banks and their customers vulnerable to cybercrimes. As an effort to combat cybercrimes and ensure cyber security in Cameroon, the 2010 Cyber Law provides both substantive and procedural rules. It is rather unfortunate that, the measures put in place to ensure cyber security and protect bank customers against cybercrimes are to a greater extent ineffective. The main objective of this article is to determine the protection accorded to banks and their customers against cybercrimes. The method adopted in the course of this work is doctrinal wherein, both primary and secondary sources of data were collected. The findings reveal among others that, the measures put in place to combat cybercrimes within the banking sphere in Cameroon are not effective. There is lack of explicit definitions for cyber offences. Most of the offences provided by the 2010 Cyber Law are vague and ambiguous. We therefore recommend that, the 2010 Cyber Law should be amended to address the current issues of ICT. This amendment should include explicit definitions for the different forms of cybercrimes with severe sanctions. Banks are advised to put in place effective monitoring machineries to mitigate cybercrimes.

Market manipulation is one of the dishonest means used by unscrupulous investors to make unjustified profits. It is conduct which unlawfully interferes with the normal operations of the markets in order to create false appearances with respect to the trading activity or the price of a financial asset. Market abuse is one of the various challenges plaguing the crypto-assets market, and is one of the financial regulators’ priority concerns. This study examines and discusses the problem of market manipulation in crypto-assets, and the need for the enactment of an effective regulatory framework in order to combat this problem and to promote investor protection and safeguard the integrity of the markets. The study finds that South Africa and other countries need to introduce rules in crypto-assets market which aim at regulating the activities of crypto-asset service providers. Currently South Africa has not enacted a comprehensive regulatory framework to address the various illegal uses of crypto-assets. The general approach adopted by South Africa to regulate crypto-assets activities involves subjecting crypto-asset service providers and their activities under the various financial sector laws established to regulate the traditional financial markets. This approach has been criticised as being inefficient in light of the unique risks presented by crypto-assets. The study discusses some of these arguments in detail and concludes by highlighting the need for the adoption of innovative regulations, in the long term, which comprehensively and effectively addressed the various risks presented by crypto-assets which also include market manipulation.

This dissertation examines the relationship between banking and society. It contributes to a better understanding of how banking affects society and, in turn on how society shapes banking practices. The first chapter studies the impact of inflation on trust in banks. Chapter two deals with the effect of trust in banks on financial inclusion. The third chapter investigates whether financial inclusion influences life satisfaction. Chapter four delves into how female bank leadership affects firm credit. The final chapter focuses on the influence of bank leaders’ age on sustainable lending. Overall, this dissertation highlights the important role of banks in societal development and the major influence of society in shaping banking practices.

Will the April 2nd Announcement generate its intended objectives? It’s still early days – however, it appears increasingly likely that negotiation outcomes – particularly between those significantly impacted by the Announcement, will be a major determinant in deciding whether the tariff hikes resulting from the April 2nd Announcement, will be short or long term. As of the 11th April, 2025, President Trump’s universal tariffs on China had amounted to 145% whilst China announced tariffs of 125% on U.S imports. Amongst other things, this paper aims to address complexities and challenges faced by regulators in identifying and assessing risk, problems arising from different perceptions of risk, and solutions aimed at countering problems of risk regulation. It will approach these issues through an assessment of explanations put forward to justify the growing importance of risks, well known risk theories such as cultural theory, risk society theory and governmentality theory. In addressing the problems posed as a result of the difficulty in quantifying risks, it will consider a means whereby risks can be quantified reasonably without the consequential effects which result from the dual nature of risk that is, risks emanating from the management of institutional risks.

It may be assumed that all of the United States’ trading partners were impacted by the recent “Liberation Day” announcement – an announcement which constitutes “two distinct tariff actions” – as will be highlighted in this paper. However, despite previous concerns of being targeted by their free trade agreement (FTA) partner, Canada and Mexico – as would have been or should be expected, have been exempted from the tariff imposition. As well as addressing factors which have contributed to the shift from free trade to increasingly and predominantly protectionist stances and most likely, fair trade practices, this paper is aimed at highlighting and explaining the rationales behind the recent historical developments – as well as highlighting those factors that have triggered the build up to the Liberation Day Announcement of the 2nd April 2025. It is remarked that “Trump’s reciprocal tariff doctrine, holds foreign countries accountable”. Against this backdrop of discontent with World Trade Organisation’s dispute resolution mechanisms, which will be further elaborated on, in the paper, the immediate and possible long term impacts of the Announcement, will be considered. As well as exploring the reasons for recent developments – by way of reference to historical developments and data, the paper also considers the underlying frameworks governing the calculations of recent tariff rates and hikes. Whilst there are arguments regarding the validity of such calculations, or whether the current scenario justifies the basis for implementing “national emergency measures”, what can be regarded as an emergency response can be determined through a consideration of underlying and contributory factors. If negotiations, and more specifically, bilateral negotiations, take place as hoped, between those countries impacted by the Liberation Day Announcement, financial stability across global markets is expected to be restored. However, if retaliatory measures follow – with an escalation of trade wars, possible repercussions should be cause for concern. The global trading system is still recovering from the recent crisis which was largely uncontrollable – hence, it is more likely (and hoped) that the recent market turbulence and volatilities will be short term.