Bibliographie sélective OHADA

In a progressive income tax system with an individual tax unit, high-rate taxpayers have an incentive to split income with lower-rate family members to minimise the family’s total tax burden. This raises equity and neutrality concerns. Adopting a spousal tax unit limits the gains from income splitting, but the individual is the better choice on privacy, autonomy, equality, definitional, marriage neutrality and work incentive grounds. Once the individual is chosen as the income tax unit, the control model provides a strong policy basis for attributing both earned and unearned income to individuals. Income splitting, however, undermines this model as well as the individual tax unit. This thesis focuses on the UK’s approach to income-splitting in family businesses. The relevant UK income tax rules, particularly the settlements provisions, are inadequate for the task. Various possible reforms are examined. Incorporating a transfer pricing or ‘reasonableness’ test into the settlements provisions would strengthen these rules, but would make taxpayer compliance with an uncertain regime even more difficult. Another option is to expand the scope of employment tax by moving the borderline between employees and the self-employed or companies. Deeper structural reforms could be made to enhance the neutrality of taxation on different legal forms of economic activity. This would reduce the incentives to incorporate for tax savings, including from income splitting. Integration of income tax and NICs is one such option; a dual income tax is another. A TAAR or GAAR also could be pursued. Ultimately, some combination of these various reform options could provide a partial solution to this challenging issue.

This thesis focuses on the interaction of two categories of non-state actors, private sector corporate actors and non-governmental organizations, with states in the context of the World Trade Organization (WTO) through a lens of public international law. It builds on the premise that the notion of states as the only subjects of international law is not adequate for a modern system of global governance, as it does not reflect the realities of fast-paced globalization and increased co-operation in a world where the boundaries of the private and public are increasingly blurred. It does not necessarily provide solutions for participation of non-state actors in the WTO, but demonstrates that developments in international relations warrant more space for participation of non-state actors, and that the current system of the WTO fails to provide sufficient space for participation. The thesis argues that, for both historical and pragmatic reasons, developments in the areas of GATT and international trade law occurred outside their natural course, leading to the myth of a “self-contained” trade regime not part of public international law. The WTO, unlike its predecessor, enjoys a proper institutional framework and mandate; one can no longer use the excuse of institutional handicap for excluding it from the system of global governance. Liberalization of international trade has far-reaching consequences which are not limited to the trade arena and the WTO, its member states, and scholars of international trade law have to assume their role in the broader context of an international legal order. Non-state actors’ formal participation can contribute to striking a balance between different forces and interests at work in the area of trade liberalization and its interplay with other non-trade issues. After setting the framework for the study, the thesis outlines modes of participation of non-state actors in the creation and modification of WTO law as well as in its enfor

My main theoretical contention is that status hierarchies provide a source of guidance to firms for resolving disputes. A status hierarchy implies a system of deference rules among firms. When disputes arise, deference rules can provide a basis for shared expectations and protocols of conduct about how technical ambiguities should be resolved. In many contexts, technical merit is difficult to assess. However, deference rules can operate as social conventions to which firms default, helping to align potentially incompatible expectations. Within this general framework, my dissertation examines how competitors in the semiconductor industry manage uncertain and frequently overlapping patent rights. In practice, patent rights are highly imperfect legal instruments when it comes to demarcating each firm's contributions to innovation in the industry. Patent disputes arise because of the ambiguity this creates about how much of the collective market returns to innovation each firm is entitled to receive. Despite the prolific patenting and propensity for disputes, the industry has remarkably not ground to a halt from runaway litigation. Litigation events, while significant, are rare. I suggest that this degree of order is, at least partly, attributable to status processes. Status can operate as a stabilizing force in the market, helping to generate orderly competition in the face of disputes. To examine whether this is the case in the semiconductor industry, I theorize that disputes are less easily resolved when the parties involved face greater status ambiguity, i.e. are less clearly differentiated from one another in status. Under status ambiguity, deference rules lose the rule-like, universal quality that makes them persuasive in resolving disputes. This has two consequences. First, firms facing low status ambiguity are less likely to be involved in patent litigation than are firms facing high status ambiguity. Patent litigation events represent failures to resolve patent disputes out of court. Second, firms facing low status ambiguity increase their product line sizes more than do firms facing high status ambiguity. The threat of difficult-to-resolve patent disputes represents a cost that can deter firms from bringing products to market.

This paper seeks to assess the extent to which the provisions of the Uniform Act dealing with demand guarantees meet the OHADA objective of modernisation to facilitate commercial activity. It notes that in general those provisions are to be welcomed as a helpful contribution towards the aforementioned OHADA objectives. However, it argues that there is scope for some improvement and that a revision of the provisions is desirable, primarily to give the parties greater commercial flexibility by allowing them more freedom of contract and to reduce the areas of uncertainty and confusion. It is proposed to consider the key benefits brought about by the Uniform Act before identifying and explaining the main areas of concern.

International Economic law (IEL) has a specific role to play in a complex modern Africa. The underdeveloped state of trade law regimes in Africa is arguably a reflection and product of the low level of commercial activity. The reverse is equally true in that underdevelopment in commercial activity on the continent is a reflection and product of the minimal role played thus far by international economic law.

Good corporate governance should be the cornerstone of all company management. Directors ought to know in whose interests the company should be managed. This thesis attempts to answer the following question: whose interests must be granted primacy in the management of a company? In chapter 1 it is stated that shareholders' interests are traditionally granted primacy in the management of a company. There has, however, been a shift in public opinion towards recognition of a wider variety of interests that should be considered than only those of the shareholders. These interests include, inter alia, environmental interests and those of the investors, employees and consumers. This thesis thus focuses on the primary stakeholders, namely individual shareholders, creditors, employees, consumers and suppliers. In chapter 2 a theoretical foundation is provided on the nature of a company. The different theories on the nature of a company, emphasising either shareholder primacy or stakeholder protection, are discussed. A combined new theory is proposed. It is suggested that the confusion relating to the meaning of "the company" needs to be eliminated. Chapters 3, 4 and 5 provide an international comparison of the company law in Botswana, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The focus falls, firstly, on directors' duties, secondly, on the question in whose interests directors should manage a company and, thirdly, on the codification of their duties. In chapter 6 the South African position is evaluated. First, the possible stakeholders are identified and the protection currently afforded them is explained. The reports of the King Committee on Corporate Governance, the Policy Document on company law reform as well as the Companies Bill of 2007 are discussed. Draft clauses are recommended to be incorporated in new company legislation to provide directors with clarity on what is expected of them. It is the aim of this thesis to provide clarity on whose interests should receive primacy when directors manage a company. The outcome of this research should provide a clear indication to South African directors of what is expected of them and who the beneficiaries of their fiduciary duties are.

You don't plant water lilies in the desert - The keystone of civilized society is justice. Without justice, neither peace nor development. A prerequisite is the populations' trust in legal institutions: the law and the courts. The alienation of the people with imposed legal institutions is the reason for Francophone Africa's lack of justice. To remedy the situation, this paper proposes to reconnect the people with the law through: (1) respecting local values in Village tribunals; (2) reforming lawmaking to comply with custom, accessible (also) in vernacular languages; (3) accessibility of law through the Internet. It is argued that the people, as client of justice, need to regain control over their law in order to respect it. Only then the necessary change of traditions and values is feasible. Women lawyer associations are identified as agents for such change. To redress modern courts, the paper suggests a concentration of tribunals, a tightening of procedure and rigorous control, in order to foster peer pressure for professionalism. The constitutional values are to serve as common bond.

Regulating telecommunications is complex: international experience indicates that there is no 'successful' regulatory framework due to the balancing of industry and regulatory interests (Laffont & Tirole, 2000, p. 13). The New Zealand 'light-handed' regulatory experiment failed and the 1999 General Election presented an opportunity for change in telecommunications. The Labour-led Government in implementing a policy of 'responsible re-regulation' enacted the Telecommunications Act 2001, signalling the passage of "landmark telecommunications legislation ..." (Swain, 2001d). Within the Telecommunications Act 2001, 'cost' assumed a central regulatory role. It is this move to cost that this thesis considers in identifying, developing, and critiquing the interface of law and accounting. The thesis examines the increasing call for accounting information in law and regulation by interrogating the use, presentation, and reception of accounting to examine the interface between law and cost in the regulation of telecommunications. The Telecommunications Act 2001 incorporates total service long run incremental costing as the 'costing technique' for interconnection access and annual net costing for the Telecommunications Service Obligation. Through interrogating 'cost' as an accounting technology, in contrast to the economic and legal conception of cost as a simple, objective concept, the thesis illustrates the role of cost at methodological, technical, and political levels, and the challenges that this poses for telecommunications regulation. The thesis articulates the relevance of discourse theory to the interface of law and accounting. Consequently, the thesis investigates the formation and discursive enunciation of standpoints of political identities characterised by antagonism and uncertainty. This includes identifying attempts by interested parties, including industry actors, stakeholders, and the Government and its agents, to articulate 'new' discourses centred on nodal points around 'cost'. The rhetorical analysis examines how actors articulate the metaphorical element of 'cost' in agitating for particular costing methods to be included in the legislation. The empirical analysis examines the process of rhetorical condensation as arguments for and against the incorporation of total service long run incremental costing and net costing came to signify the complete failure of the light-handed regulation. Then, by examining the politics following the enactment of legislation, this condensation is unpacked. The analysis of the contestation over interpreting and implementing the regulation illustrates displacement of the 'common' signifier resulting in confusion and disappointment in relation to the aims of the new regulatory regime.

This paper is premised upon acceptance of the view that some form of harmonisation of laws in Africa is a desirable objective and that comparative legal research is a tool that might effectively be applied in order to further the objective of harmonisation. That said, the time has come for comparatists in Africa to think afresh on the issues of globalisation and the need for harmonisation of laws in Africa, with a view to promoting peace, stability and scope for increased development in the region through greater regional economic co-operation.

Performance requirements are part of a system of policy measures implemented by states to advance their economic, social and political objectives. A universally agreed upon definition of performance requirements is not available. Rather they are defined by the applicable legal norms and their assessment is dependent upon their effect on the parties of each individual case. The scope of legal protection these regulations provide must be measured separately for each norm within the scope of the specific legal framework. This dissertation has two objectives: First, the implementation and legal effect of performance requirements in international investment and trade law are investigated. Secondly, a legal test will be developed, that allows for an assessment of performance requirements. In a first step, the legal treatment of performance requirements will be analyzed from a theoretical perspective. Subsequently, the legal practices relating performance requirements and the relevant provisions in international investment and trade law will be identified. The developed legal test does not only do justice to the economic, social and political framework within which each performance requirement must be looked at but is also adaptable in a way that it can be applied to a variety of situations and legal traditions. It satisfies both the demands of legal certainty and clarity as well as facilitating the finding of justice on an individual basis. Understanding the advantages of foreign direct investment, the analysis performed aims promote the usage of performance requirements in a way that foreign direct investment will push the global economy forward.

This thesis examines the structure of enquiry that arbitral tribunals use to distinguish between regulatory expropriation and legitimate non-compensable regulation in international investment law. The thesis proposes a new taxonomy of the possible structures of enquiry: the enquiry could look exclusively to the effects of the measure on the protected property; exclusively to the characteristics of the impugned measure; or to both the effects on the property and the characteristics of the measure. The application of this taxonomy shows that there is no agreed structure of enquiry in decisions on regulatory expropriation in international investment law. However, various threads of jurisprudence do show some degree of internal consistency. The thesis identifies six approaches in the decisions of arbitral tribunals: two that look exclusively to the effects of the measure; one that looks exclusively to the characteristics of the measure; and three that consider both the effects and the characteristics of the measure. Of the three approaches that consider both the effects and the characteristics of a measure, one is a direct adoption of US 5th Amendment jurisprudence and another is a direct adoption of ECHR Article 1 – Protocol 1 jurisprudence. Chapters 4 and 5 examine the jurisprudence of the US and ECHR in detail. These chapters show that, unlike international investment law, each of these jurisdictions has an established structure of enquiry in cases of regulatory expropriation. All six approaches to regulatory expropriation are sketched as models. These model approaches are applied to the case study of Piero Foresti. The case study demonstrates the most significant conclusion of this thesis: that different structures of enquiry, and different approaches within those structures, necessarily entail different legal outcomes on the same facts.

The construction of copyright law can be causally explained by two possible types of explanation: dialectical explanations and material explanations. I argue that an adequate causal description of the copyright discourses of Western legal systems must incorporate a material explanation in order to account for many of the general and particular characteristics of the evolution of copyright. As a vast variety of contingent and interactive social and technical conditions have caused the evolution of copyright, we should expect a plausible material explanation to be multifaceted and multi-layered. However, in addition to providing a causal sociohistorical description, a good legal explanation should also seek to include a normative account detailing the moral grounds of the law, or lack thereof. Dialectical explanations can be teleological: they can presuppose that the law is directed towards a perfect legal state and that it is essentially guided by a set of moral ideals. Material explanations, on the other hand, are essentially non-normative and do not explicitly address moral questions. But this does not entail the elimination of moral considerations from material explanations. As I aim to show, we should not address the moral and sociohistorical elements of copyright legal discourses independently because they are causally connected: moral justifications have been rhetorically used by social actors to influence lawmaking processes, and conversely, changes in technical conditions have given rise to sociotechnical formations that enable and structure the norms of copyright. Given this, I propose that lawmakers should adjudicate and legislate from a broad and flexible standpoint. They should not attempt to merely apply old principles to new problems, but should comprehend new moral norms introduced by new conditions, and balance them against the older, more established principles enshrined in traditional intellectual property theories.

The model required to drive socio-economic development in Africa, and the relationship between the state and the private sector based on that model, have sparked much controversy among African analysts. Some question the relevance of other successful models of development, such as in the liberal West or in East-Asia, to the African context. Others criticise all models of development that are “alien” to African cultures and conditions hence rejecting the NEPAD model on this basis. This paper argues that although NEPAD does not present a detailed model of the relationship between the state, the private sector and civil society in Africa, some of its theoretical underpinnings suggest a balanced framework that should prompt African scholars to search for new models that do not necessarily imitate already successful ones but respect the particularities of each African state

Creditors of the corporate business form are in a vulnerable position. Recognition of the plight of corporate creditors led to the implementation of various legal measures aimed at protecting their financial interest in the company. These measures proved disappointingly inadequate in many instances. As a result the judiciary in some jurisdictions felt compelled to develop existing legal principles pertaining to directors’ duties in such a way that they could be used to facilitate protection of corporate creditors’ interests. This development did not meet with universal approval. Those opposed to the extension of directors’ duties to protect creditors’ interests have three main arguments against it. The first is related to conceptual issues and policy concerns. The second argument is that existing remedies are more than adequate to protect creditors’ interests. A last argument against a directorial duty to creditors pertains to the practical implementation of this extended duty. It is argued that the existing legal framework with regard to directors’ duties is not suitable to provide protection for creditors’ interests. However, it was shown in this study that the extension of directors’ duties to protect creditors’ interests is indeed justifiable on a sound conceptual basis and that policy concerns regarding such an extension are either unfounded, or should be addressed in some other way. An analysis of existing protective measures and remedies often referred to by opponents of an extension of directors’ duties, namely statutory personal liability of directors, traditional insolvency remedies, and the piercing of the veil doctrine furthermore showed that these measures are inadequate. This leads to the conclusion that there is a definite need for an alternative remedy, such as the extension of directors’ duties to include creditors’ interests. The existing legal framework in respect of directors’ duties furthermore proved to be capable of being successfully adapted to include creditors’ interests. Central issues in this respect, as was indicated by an analysis of case law, are the point in time when the duty to creditors is triggered, the beneficiary of the duty, in other words who would have locus standi in case of a breach of the duty, and the type of protection afforded to creditors’ interests by way of fiduciary duties and the duty of care and skill. The existing legal framework also provides measures in terms of which honest and diligent directors may be relieved from liability, such as indemnification, relief granted by the courts and director liability insurance. These measures, if formulated correctly, may achieve and maintain the essential balance between accountability and entrepreneurial freedom. The legislature appears to have adopted a cautious approach to the issue of directors’ duties to creditors. It thus seems to be up to the judiciary to develop directors’ duties to creditors in a meaningful way. Pioneering in this respect has already been done in Australia, New Zealand, England, Canada and the United States of America. It is to be hoped that the South African judiciary will follow suit when the opportunity to do so arises.

Traditionally, company law assumes that the directors’ role is to run the company for the benefit of its shareholders alone and to maximise profits for them. It can be argued, however, that this view is too narrow and outdated; that is, company directors should have regard to the rights and interests of a broader range of corporate stakeholders. Hence, the question is whether we should change our perception of the company or corporation from one run by directors dedicated exclusively to serving the interests of shareholders to that of a corporation whose main purpose is to bring benefit not only to its owners and creditors, but also to its employees, the community and the environment. Given that reforms of directors’ duties in light of the above considerations have found their way into legislation across the globe, this thesis examines how and to what extent legal rules and policies should develop in South Africa to place directors under a positive duty to take account of the interests of bodies other than shareholders. Current South African company law does not contain clear rules regarding corporate governance issues and the duties and liabilities of directors. These matters have been left to the common law and Codes of Corporate Practice. Thus, there is no extensive statutory scheme in South Africa, which covers the duties, obligations and accountability of directors. The focus in this thesis is on the rights and interests of employees and the premise that is defended is that it is valuable to corporations to provide employees with an institutionalised voice at board level. It is argued that there is global evidence that where employees participate in the decision-making processes of the company, performance is generally enhanced. This, in turn, directly impacts upon and improves economic productivity, generating a ‘win-win’ situation. The question of the duties of company directors and managers is attracting much attention in South Africa. With rapidly developing and changing labour legislation in South Africa, it is essential to consider the extent to which the country should reassess its traditional principles of company law and corporate governance policies in order to encourage participatory roles for employees in the workplace. It is argued that if South Africa is to improve corporate productivity levels with its re-entry into international markets, management and labour must find improved ways of dealing with one another. The main purpose of this thesis, therefore, is to propose and formulate a workable corporate governance model for South Africa – one that would be advantageous to all stakeholders, especially the employees. This is achieved by comparing and contrasting international models of corporate governance and by applying the best features of each to the unique South African corporate system of values, structures and traditions. It is suggested that the current unitary board structure operating in South Africa has become outdated and does not provide employees with rights enabling them to engage in the decision-making processes of the corporation with their employees at an adequate level. In its place, a two-tier board system of corporate governance is proposed. The economic success of a company will bring about social benefits to many stakeholder constituencies. This will not happen if the company is a financial failure. The issue of obliging directors to act primarily for the benefit of shareholders alone is questioned. Corporate governance reforms were undertaken in many parts of the world in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. This reform process questioned whether the interests of the company should be managed for the shareholders alone or for the other corporate stakeholders as well. There are many views that strongly support the idea that corporate governance should be seen as a system by which corporations are to be governed for the benefits of all stakeholders, including shareholders, employees, creditors, suppliers and the community. In this way, companies should be run as communities in partnerships with all their stakeholders. Thus, this thesis proposes that the success of a company is inextricably intertwined with a consideration of the rights and interests of its employees and other stakeholders.

This paper examines the circumstances in which a party to an arbitration agreement may be deemed tohave waived its right to arbitrate a dispute comprehended by the agreement, by involvement in litigation concerning this dispute. The focus is on the law in common law jurisdictions, particularly Australia and theUnited States of America. United Kingdom law will also be briefly surveyed. The paper focuses on the 2006 decision of the Australian Federal Court in Comandate Marine Corp v Pan Australia Shipping Pty Ltd, whichafforded the topic significant treatment. The theoretical bases for sustaining waiver claims are analysed, includingwaiver as a discrete doctrine, abandonment, estoppel, election, repudiation of contract and variation of contract.The policies that underlie and inform the development of principles for testing waiver submissions are noted.

In this paper we analyse the determinants of disclosure level in the accounting for financial instruments of Portuguese listed companies. Considering the mandatory adoption of International Accounting Standards after 2005, our ultimate objective is to analyse the characteristics of companies that are closest to the disclosure requirements of IAS 32 and IAS 39. We have constructed an index of disclosure comprising 54 items based on IAS 32 and 39 disclosure requirements and computed the index score for each Portuguese listed company based on the analysis of the companies’ annual reports. We tested the relation between the index score and several firm-specific characteristics: size, industry, auditor type, listing status, multinationality degree, relationship shareholders/creditors and importance of shareholders. We conclude that larger companies and companies listed in more than one exchange market show higher levels of disclosure, meaning that they are closer to IAS 32 and 39 requirements. We argue that the agency theory, the signalling theory and the political costs theory do not fully explain Portuguese reality, where there is a large degree of family ownership and bank-oriented financing policies. We therefore advocate that the introducing variables related to specific characteristics of Portuguese companies and managers, in the context of other theoretical frameworks, notably the contingency theory, brings important insights to this type of analysis.