Bibliographie sélective OHADA

ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (“Constitution”) enshrines the right to equality, emphasising “the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms”. This commitment embodies the principle of substantive equality, which extends beyond mere formal equality by addressing systemic inequities and striving for transformative change. The pursuit of transformative equality is underpinned by two constitutionally mandated mechanisms: affirmative action and the prohibition of unfair discrimination, both direct and indirect. Within this framework, the prohibition of unfair discrimination serves a dual purpose: It establishes a foundation for defending formal equality while simultaneously acting as a transformative tool, particularly in safeguarding against indirect discrimination. In a transformative context, the concept of protection against indirect discrimination specifically is significant as it acknowledges that equal treatment can still perpetuate inequality. The concept has the unique ability to identify hidden barriers and protect against more subtle forms of unfair discrimination, rendering it instrumental in advancing substantive equality and promoting long-term, systemic change. Yet, despite its transformative potential, the application of protection against indirect unfair discrimination in South African employment jurisprudence remains underdeveloped. And even in jurisdictions where the concept has received greater attention (for purposes of this study, the United States of America, Canada and the United Kingdom), it has not significantly advanced substantive workplace transformation. The reasons for this limited success are partly shared across these jurisdictions and partly unique to South Africa. Given the above, the primary objectives of this study are threefold: (i) to explore the protection against indirect discrimination in advancing transformative equality within the South African constitutional framework; (ii) to investigate the reasons for the limited development and application of this concept in South African employment law; and (iii) to assess whether the prohibition of indirect discrimination should be upheld as a distinct legal concept in employment law. These objectives were anchored by the fundamental question guiding the study: what role does the concept stand to play in employment law in SA in future and, if any, to what extent and in what form? The study begins by examining the broader concept of equality – a notion that is both complex and continually evolving. Key questions that are addressed include: What does equality mean? What are the objectives inherent to equality? What values underpin the concept? Following this exploration, the focus shifts to the role of equality within the South African Constitution, specifically the content of the right to equality as provided for in section 9 of the Constitution. This includes an overview of the constitutionally mandated mechanisms for enforcing equality, namely affirmative action and the prohibition of unfair discrimination, with particular attention to protection against indirect forms of unfair discrimination. The study thereafter narrows its focus to the application of the latter concept within South African employment law. It highlights the challenges that have hindered the effective development of the concept, which can be broadly categorised as conceptual and practical obstacles. The South African experience is compared to the development and application of the concept in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, offering a comparative perspective on the concept’s evolution in the aforesaid jurisdictions. The study concludes by presenting suggestions and recommendations on the future role of indirect discrimination within South African anti-discrimination employment law. It also recommends strategies for more effective implementation of the concept.

Abstract The rise of remote work, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has created significant challenges for employees, employers, and the government, complicating the management of remote teams while striving to maintain productivity and organizational cohesion. The central problem addressed in this study is the deteriorating state of employment relations marked by downsizing and layoffs, particularly in the private sector in Nigeria. This study aims to analyze the impact of remote work on these stakeholders through a systematic and thematic review based on PRISMA guidelines. Twenty four publications from 2013 to 2023 were reviewed, sourced from Google Scholar, DOAJ, Scopus, and Web of Science. The findings indicate that while organizations are beginning to adopt tools for remote work and virtual communication, these resources are primarily accessible to larger companies due to associated costs. Additionally, the study highlights the pressing need for enhanced infrastructure and structural improvements to support remote work at a societal and economic level. In conclusion, the study recommends that the government enhance infrastructural development and that organizations implement better strategies for remote work. Furthermore, individuals should pursue advancements in technology to adapt to the changing landscape. These recommendations aim to promote sustainable employment relations and economic development in Nigeria in light of the evolving digital economy.

Informal social security is a non-governmental form of social security between kin and/or community members and is a prevalent practice in South Africa. The question this dissertation analyses is whether the South African government fails in its constitutional duty to protect and advance informal social security. The dissertation limits itself to analysing cash transfers through social grants, and social insurance in the Unemployment Insurance Act and the Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act. This dissertation delineates its definition of informal social security, historically contextualises its practice, and explains the contemporary formal social security framework. This dissertation finds five prominent shortcomings in the formal framework, and that these shortcomings have a profoundly negative, weakening effect on informal social security, as the more people who rely on informal mechanisms, the less it can respond to needs arising from life contingencies, shocks, and risks. The dissertation concludes by analysing three legal reform proposals the state can implement: extending existing social insurance frameworks to those in the informal sector, promoting cooperatives as a formal platform for the informal, and the basic income grant.

In contemporary times, the issue of human and labour rights violations has gained significant momentum, rendering it imperative for international organisations, states, and businesses to address this critical concern. It is widely acknowledged that while multinational enterprises can aid in achieving economic growth by investing directly overseas and raising the standard of living for the residents of host nations, their business operations may also result in abuse of human and labour rights. The United Nations (UN) Charter was drafted to set forth obligations for individual states, yet businesses do not bear international legal obligations. The Universal Declaration on Human Rights was adopted to implement the substantive contents of human rights referred to in the UN Charter in the general way. The preamble of the Universal Declaration refers to all organs of society, but, at the time of its adoption, businesses were not considered among such organs. It was inconceivable that business organisations would become so economically powerful within a few decades that they would pose a significant risk to human and labour rights, which would not be easily regulated under the national law of their host nations. It is the hypothesis of this study that numerous multinational enterprises (MNEs) violate core human and core labour rights, and that the existing regulatory framework does not adequately regulate them. To prove this hypothesis, this thesis will adopt a two phased approach. Firstly, a careful case law and literature review will reveal the inadequate regulation of MNEs. Evidence suggests that MNEs are guilty of flagrant labour standards and human rights violations. As a result of globalisation, MNEs have gained stronger international influence, and they are able to move their businesses to countries with low cost of labour and less regulations. This phenomenon weakens the governments of host nations as they are keen to promote foreign direct investment in order to reduce unemployment and to ensure economic growth. As a result, the host nations are encouraged to set laws that will attract MNEs at the expense of human and core labour rights. As result, MNEs are not held accountable in respect of their violation of human and labour rights. Secondly, this thesis will assess the efficacy of the regulatory instruments developed by the international community in response to the mentioned problem. This aspect is covered in Chapter 3 to 7 of this thesis. The strategies include the public and private hard law and soft law mechanisms developed at international level as well as campaigns by Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs). Based on evidence, this thesis will conclude that a soft law approach is not fully effective. As such, Chapter 8 of this thesis proposes the introduction of some hard law measures to improve the existing soft law instruments to augment the existing legislative frameworks of the host countries. In particular, the thesis recommends regulatory reforms, which will empower the International Labour Organisation to intervene to prevent the labour rights violations by MNEs and where such violations occur, to at least provide effective remedies to vulnerable employees. This thesis constitutes a theoretical study, which attempts to provide suggestions regarding the implementation of realistic measures, which if implemented, may contribute to the attainment of decent work for all men and women who are engaged in work for MNEs.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between employee pilferage of pilferage and security in beverage manufacturing companies in Lagos State. The study is anchored on the rational choice theory in order to understand the connection between pilferage and security in beverage manufacturing companies in Lagos State. The researcher adopted a mixed research method involving survey research and historical research designs. The population of this study is 8,595 staff. This comprises all employees of Promasidor Nigeria Ltd, Nigeria Bottling Company (Coca Cola), Cadbury Nigeria Plc, and Guiness Nigeria Plc. The sample size of the study was 400 determined using Rakesh Sample size formula. Data were collected from primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected using questionnaires, while secondary data were collected from related works on pilferage and security in beverage manufacturing companies. Data collected from questionnaire were analyzed using absolute frequencies and simple percentages, while data from secondary sources were analyzed using relational-content analysis. Among other things, it was found that the higher the level of pilferage, the lower the level of security of employees in beverage manufacturing companies in Lagos State. Among other things, it was recommended that given that there is relationship between pilferage and security in beverage manufacturing companies in Lagos State, beverage manufacturing companies in the state should ensure that stealing is drastically reduced in their various organizations through employment, training and proper motivation of staff who must be full-time staff. This would largely make the employees committed to work and shun pilferage.

Workforces are made up of individuals with differences in personal characteristics, differences that may be traced back to unique personality types and traits and – sometimes – neurodivergence. Due to the inherent subjectivity of the interpersonal relationships that form the foundation of a work environment, these differences in personal characteristics inevitably lead to tension. In addition, as part of managing a work environment employers frequently take decisions that may be influenced by views and perceptions regarding employees’ personal characteristics. This study starts with a descriptive examination of the meaning of personality and the influence that personality traits and types may have on employment. This is followed by a descriptive examination of neurodivergence, the various forms of neurodivergence, and the impact of these conditions on the work environment. Building on these descriptive and conceptual underpinnings, the legal implications of neurodiversity in the workplace are investigated by identifying which principles of the existing South African employment law framework may be utilised to provide protection and promote respect for neurodiversity and the neurodiverse differences between employees. This encompasses a discussion of the South African employment law rules relating to recruitment and selection of employees, some of the rules applicable to the day-to-day management of employees, and the rules relating to termination of employment that may be (in)directly influenced by considerations of neurodiversity. The focus thereafter shifts to consider the legal principles of employment discrimination law, where it is found that the listed ground of disability and an unlisted arbitrary ground may potentially be used as the applicable grounds of discrimination by employees if they are prejudiced due to their neurodiverse characteristics. In addition, the possibility that the rules on reasonable accommodation may be utilised as primary mechanism to properly regulate neurodiversity in the work environment and protect against prejudicial treatment of employees due to their inherent personal neurodiverse characteristics is also considered. The South African position and potential employment law rules that may apply to the management of neurodiversity in the work environment is compared to the position in the United Kingdom by focusing on the meaning of disability, the right to reasonable adjustments, and the right to request flexible working arrangements. Finally, the conclusions that may be drawn from this study are emphasised and are followed by some recommendations on how (reasonable) accommodation of neurodiversity in the work environment may appropriately be used as primary mechanism to provide employees with sufficient and appropriate protection of differences in neurodiverse characteristics. Even though this study focuses on neurodiversity and neurological differences between employees, the principles and recommendations from this study may be of value in relation to the appropriate management and regulation of all inherent differences between employees.

The main aim of this thesis is to solve the uncertainties brought about by dismissals for off-duty misconduct. First, it should be acknowledged that the world as we know it has changed and continues to evolve. Dismissals have been significantly impacted by the use of social media outside the workplace. The legalisation of the use of cannabis by an adult person has also brought uncertainties in the way dismissals are handled, especially in cases where an employee consumes cannabis off-duty. These two aspects have significantly influenced dismissals for off-duty misconduct in South Africa, with employees alleging that their rights to privacy, dignity and freedom of expression are infringed. The thesis reveals that regardless of these modern changes, off-duty misconduct dismissal is still governed by the generic provisions of the Labour Relations Act 1995 and its Code of Good Practice: Dismissal. The thesis underscores the lack of clarity regarding the regulation of dismissals for off-duty misconduct in South Africa. Furthermore, despite the judiciary’s establishment of tests (the nexus test and the breakdown of the employment relationship), challenges in adjudicating off-duty misconduct cases persist. This thesis analyses the South African legal framework governing dismissals for off-duty misconduct. The research investigates the evolution of South African dismissal law, tracing its development from the pre-democratic era to the post-democratic era. This investigation scrutinises the shifts in the legal landscape regarding dismissals for off-duty misconduct. The analysis encompasses a range of legal instruments pertinent to South Africa, including legislation, international law, common law, and judicial precedent. The current need for a Code of Good Practice for off-duty misconduct dismissal is highlighted. This rationale is prompted by a comparative examination of other countries where, despite the absence of specific codes addressing off-duty misconduct, a proactive stance has been adopted to safeguard employees’ off-duty rights by enacting relevant legislation. These chosen states have statutes regulating employees’ off-duty conduct and clarifying which conduct is protected and in which circumstances. Consequently, the thesis proposes a Code of Good Practice: Dismissal for Off-duty Misconduct. This Code would assist in the uniformity of application of relevant aspects in determining the fairness of dismissals for off-duty misconduct, thus alleviating labour suits concerning this type of dismissal. The Code would also provide employers with guidelines on how to draft off-duty misconduct policies without infringing employees’ constitutional rights.

An array of governance initiatives has emerged to address forced labour and labour exploitation in global value chains (GVCs). Drawing on the transnational business governance interactions theoretical framework, as well as Timothy Bartley’s place-conscious transnational governance model, this thesis examines the interaction between two of these hybrid forms of governance: multi-stakeholder initiatives and corporate sustainability laws. I conduct a case study of the cocoa sector, and specifically of the multinational company, Nestlé, using multiple qualitative research methods including legal analysis, key informant interviews, and documentary analysis. My research suggests that the layering of corporate sustainability laws, and particularly the French Duty of Vigilance Law, on top of CSR and MSIs in the cocoa sector, is not addressing the governance gap that permits corporations to evade accountability for human rights abuses in their supply chain. I find that the introduction of corporate sustainability laws may have contributed to a decrease in Nestlé's efforts to address labor violations in certain areas, while in others, it appears to have supported the continuation of existing practices. This raises implications for the continuous efforts in various jurisdictions to introduce these laws as a solution to the shortcomings of private, voluntary rule-making systems. Further research is required to explore how these governance mechanisms are interacting in other sectors, in companies of different sizes, and within various types of MSIs. This will help identify the factors that influence interactions and shed further light on the path forward for policymakers.

Recent empirical evidence suggests that labour markets are not as competitive as previously thought. In that context, mobilizing antitrust policy has been discussed as a possible solution. The proposition sounds counterintuitive, however. If workers are paid below the competitive level, doesn’t this promote consumers’ outcomes by reducing downstream prices? Given that antitrust policy promotes consumer welfare, why would antitrust authorities intervene against such a state of affairs? Besides, why would stepping up on antitrust enforcement improve workers’ outcomes? Their interests have traditionally been protected through their exclusion from the scope of antitrust enforcement, not by the enforcement of antitrust rules to their benefit. This thesis demonstrates that those spontaneous assumptions do not hold. Consumer welfare does not speak against the defence of workers’ interests. First, the focus on consumers is a by product of methods: it does not prevent consideration of other types of market participants. Moreover, consumers benefit from competitive labour markets. The welfare effects of monopsony power simultaneously worsen workers and consumers’ outcomes. As for the promotion of workers’ interests, it can be achieved through both positive and negative enforcement of antitrust. So far, the EU Commission has been less proactive than the American DOJ and FTC on the issue of antitrust enforcement in labour markets ( although the state of affairs is evolving). While this difference may stem from EU workers benefitting from higher levels of social protection than US workers, those higher levels of protection may not negate the usefulness of antitrust ’s intervention. The low levels of antitrust enforcement in EU labour markets may result from legal uncertainty and case law inconsistency more than an absence of harm. Just like the merger control apparatus, Article 101 and 102 TFEU can be used to scrutinize labour markets. While doing so involves some practical complexities, they can be overcome.

National Manpower Development Secretariat

This paper presents a shift-share decomposition of the role of structural change in driving labour productivity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The paper further examines the effect that the observed structural change has had upon the dynamics of labour markets in SSA. The analysis is based on a newly constructed dataset, the Extended Africa Sector Database. This database updates and extends the Africa Sector Database of the Groningen Growth and Development Centre. It includes eighteen countries covering the period 1960–2015. Overall, the database shows that productivity growth has been slow, with large and persistent sectoral productivity gaps present. The extent of structural change has been higher than that observed in previous studies, however. But while the share of employment and value added in agriculture has declined, resources have been pulled into certain service sectors that have relatively low productivity, thus limiting aggregate productivity improvements. The general direction of structural change has not been towards the most productive sectors. Results of the labour market analysis complement this analysis, providing suggestive evidence of a role for labour market institutional arrangements in many SSA countries in affecting these outcomes.

This study investigates the impact and importance of the legal regulation of trade union recognition and associated challenges in South Africa. It evaluates the current regulation of trade union recognition, including legislation and judicial attitudes apparent from the interpretation, application, and enforcement of such legislation, to ascertain its continued appropriateness in the current South African industrial relations environment. The study considers the policy choices of both voluntarism and majoritarianism underlying the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (“LRA”) and the “workplace” constituency to which it applies as factors that might be contributing to challenges experienced in the current regulation of collective bargaining in South Africa. It evaluates the current model of trade union recognition and representativeness as it applies to the acquisition by trade unions of organisational rights, collective bargaining rights and trade union recognition for purposes of retrenchment consultation. It recognises that the specific model chosen to regulate the representative status of trade unions has a significant effect on the ability of trade unions to organise and conclude collective agreements and, as such, on the distributive effects of such agreements in the labour market and broader society. The study commences with an historical overview of the regulation of trade union recognition under the 1956 LRA and thereafter considers the 1995 LRA as a product of criticism against the 1956 LRA. Specific issues considered, largely based on the analysis of the relevant decisions by the Constitutional Court, include the following: the impact of Constitutional Court jurisprudence relating to trade union recognition on the process of collective bargaining and on the legal regulation of the right to strike; the role of representativeness and its link with the workplace as the constituency for recognition and acquisition of organisational rights; the often winner-takes-all effect of the current model on collective bargaining as a major cause of labour unrest; the reactive role the legislature has played over the past, almost three decades to address challenges; the extent to which intervention should take place to safeguard the institution of collective bargaining from being undermined as well as the regulation of collective agreements as the product of collective bargaining and as the primary source of terms and conditions of employment. The comparative review of Canadian law focuses on a number of issues selected specifically for their potential to provide insights into how the weaknesses in South African regulation may be remedied. This includes insights into the accommodation of special or significant minority interests and how to address recognition in the context of multi-location employers. The thesis concludes with remarks on the insights gained from the Canadian model and the 1956 LRA. Where appropriate, suggestions are made on the way forward for South Africa as to the appropriate regulation of trade union recognition and representativeness.

The relationship between an employer and employee though governed by various laws and regulations can still at some point witness some disagreements and dispute. Labour disputes are not uncommon neither are they peculiar to a particular industry in a country. Usually, trade disputes are hinged on agitation of employees for compensation, good working conditions, job stability and agitation against unlawful termination or dismissal of from service. Over the years, employees have adopted different ways to exhibit their discomfort and grievances in order to convey their message such as strike actions, peaceful protest and so on.  There’s no doubt that these disputes will drastically reduce the level of productivity and overall beneficial impact of the industries in the economic growth of the country. Hence, there’s a need to adopt strategies for resolving these labour disputes. Some industries have applied round table discussions, arbitration, mediation, collective bargaining as well as grievances remedial processes. This work will provide an overview of the causes of disputes in the corporate sector, examine the features of the Nigerian and United States disputes resolution system and also juxtapose the strategies for resolving labour disputes in the two countries. Furthermore, it will provide recommendations to effectively addressing labour issues within the business sector.

Labour migration, which involves both labour immigration and labour emigration, refers to ‘the cross-border movement of people from a homeland to a location outside that homeland, with the purpose of taking up employment’.1 Labour migration has become an ever more important feature of the globalising world as it plays an important role and has a direct impact on African countries’ economies and societies.2 Recognising the significant benefits of labour migration to countries of origin and destination, the African Union urges African States to enact labour migration laws, regulations, and policies in a regular, transparent, and comprehensive manner at both continental and country levels.3 In this regard, many African countries have exercised their prerogative to regulate labour migration, which falls within each state’s sovereign discretion. By way of illustration, this thesis focuses on two specific countries, namely the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and South Africa, which have regulated the employment of foreign-born workers. The two countries have established a legal and regulatory framework aimed at protecting the national labour force against foreign competition. The two countries have been selected for this study because they are comparable in many ways while differing as much as possible in terms of the institutional set-up of their migration systems and labour markets. In fact, this study seeks to compare the DRC’s and South Africa’s labour migration laws, regulations and policies, particularly how these legal and regulatory instruments effectively protect the national labour force against foreign competition. In this sense, the study explores the overall successes and challenges of these legislative and regulatory endeavours, while identifying the shortcomings and merits of the implementation of the laws and policies in the two countries.

Transnational labour law scholarship has emerged over the past three decades. However, relatively limited scholarship has explored the role of actors from emerging market economies and the challenges and opportunities they have brought for achieving decent work in a globalized economy. This thesis addresses the research gap through an in-depth investigation into the role of actors from China in the dynamics of multi-level governance of labour rights in a globalized economy. Building on a multi-level, actor-centred and processual approach, this thesis argues that China and Chinese enterprises are playing a rising role in developing and shaping the dynamics of multi-level governance of labour rights in the global cobalt supply chain. Furthermore, the thesis suggests that actors from China have started challenging some unequal patterns of existing labour governance in the global cobalt supply chain and have demonstrated the potential to form a counterbalancing force to challenge the dominant role of actors from the global North. A multi-level governance framework has recently emerged and rapidly evolved in the global cobalt supply chain to eliminate child labour in the artisanal copper-cobalt mining sector in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This framework is complex, pluralistic, and decentred. A wide range of state and non-state actors are developing various governance initiatives and shaping the dynamics of multi-level governance. Actors from China are playing a rising role in the global cobalt supply chain alongside a few other actors that have also provided proposals from the global South. Over the past decade, Chinese state agencies, nationwide industry associations and mining enterprises have proactively engaged in developing and shaping the multi-level governance framework to address governance deficits on decent work in the global cobalt supply chain. State agencies have developed various regulatory documents to enhance the social dimension of the Chinese regulatory framework for outward foreign direct investment. Nationwide industry associations have further conceptualized the term “corporate social responsibility” and have taken labour rights as key to the social responsibilities of Chinese enterprises operating overseas. Specifically, a Chinese nationwide industry association for the mining industry has developed comprehensive guidelines and initiatives to clarify and operationalize the labour component of social responsibilities in Chinese outward mining investment. The changing dynamics of multi-level governance have played a crucial role in shaping the private labour governance initiatives that Chinese mining enterprises are developing in the global cobalt supply chain. The contributions of this thesis are original, significant, and timely, given the notable research gaps on China and Chinese enterprises’ engagement with the dynamics of multi-level governance of labour rights in a globalized economy and the ongoing development of a multi-level governance framework in the global cobalt supply chain

This contribution considers the legislative regulation of the job security (which boils down to preservation of employment) of employees in case of financial distress of a company. It juxtaposes the legislative regulation of four interrelated processes a company may engage in where it finds itself in financial distress, namely a voluntary internal restructuring (especially retrenchment), the transfer of the business or part of the business, business rescue and winding up. The legislative endeavour to preserve the job security of employees in all these processes is described and analysed. The discussion shows that room exists for companies to circumvent this protection and, to the extent that the protection does apply, that it remains difficult for employees to ultimately challenge the substance of decisions negatively affecting their job security. The main protection for employees in all these processes is procedural in nature and to be found in their rights to be informed of and consulted prior to decisions negatively affecting them. In this regard, business rescue is the most employee-friendly process. Participation in this process by employees, however, requires a fine balance as it may be self-defeating and lead to winding up and the permanent loss of jobs.

Circular labour migration is steadily gaining prominence the world over, primarily due to the benefits it offers to the migrants, to the sending country, and to the receiving country – the so-called "triple-win" benefits. In order to enhance the benefits of circular labour migration, both the International Labour Organisation and the International Organisation for Migration recommend that adequate instruments of governance should be utilised. From the outset, this thesis recognises bilateral labour arrangements as the ideal instruments for enhancing the potential benefits that circular labour migration offers to the stakeholders involved in the process. As far as could be established, there has been no comprehensive research that seeks to provide insights on how the selected countries in the Southern Africa Development Community (South Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe) could optimise the benefits of circular labour migration for all stakeholders, primarily through the use of bilateral labour arrangements. The need for these insights in Southern Africa is pertinent due to the absence of a contemporary and clear framework regulating circular labour migration in the region. Based on the foregoing, this thesis advances the proposition that the guidelines provided by international law and standards of labour migration, and the best practices in Spain and New Zealand, can provide significant insights on how South Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe can enhance the regulation of circular labour migration to provide optimised benefits for all stakeholders. Proceeding from the above premise, this thesis makes a number of findings. These include the affirmation that bilateral labour arrangements are indeed the key regulatory instruments for promoting the triple-win benefits that circular labour migration offers; that circular labour migration, if managed well, plays an instrumental role in development in both the sending countries and the receiving countries; and that three key areas should be addressed in bilateral labour arrangements in order to effectively promote triple-win benefits. The three key areas that need to be addressed in bilateral labour arrangements in order to enhance the benefits for all stakeholders are linking migration with development, migration governance, and the protection of the rights of migrant workers. This thesis outlines the various principles that are necessary to give effect to these three key areas. This thesis finds that, based on the guidelines provided by international law and standards, it is essential that bilateral labour arrangements, at the minimum, incorporate provisions that facilitate skills training, the return and reintegration of migrants, the transfer of remittances, and the promotion of human resources development. In this regard, this study finds that the bilateral labour arrangements between South Africa and its neighbours, Lesotho and Zimbabwe, fall short of the guidelines provided by international law and standards on labour migration and by the best practices in New Zealand and Spain. The original contribution of this study lies in it being the first study to comprehensively explore the legal measures that South Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe could utilise to optimise the regulation of circular labour migration to South Africa as the main receiving country in SADC. This study makes recommendations on how the labour migration legal framework between the three countries can be improved, based on lessons learned from international law and standards on labour migration and best practices from selected countries.

There are many employment positions in the labour market that could be filled by the disabled of whom most, given the right environment, could be productive in the workplace. However, there are employers who still labour under the misconception that Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) are unqualified and unproductive although their participation in the workplace could contribute to the national economy, while restoring their dignity and social integration. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) entered into force on 3 May 2008. The CRPD is the first international legally binding treaty aimed specifically at protecting the rights of PWDs. It is expected of ratifying States Parties to either amend their domestic existing laws or to enact new legislation in order to meet their obligations, as set out in the CRPD. In 2008, South Africa ratified the CRPD and the Optional Protocol, thus committing itself to the provisions relating to, inter alia, workplace integration. Article 26 of the Convention mandates States Parties to take effective and appropriate measures to enable PWDs to attain and maintain maximum independence, physical, mental, social and vocational ability, and to ensure their social inclusion. Article 27 stipulates, inter alia, that States Parties shall safeguard and promote the realisation of the right to work, including those who incur a disability during the course of employment. Legislation should make provision for, inter alia the following: • enable PWDs to have effective access to general technical and vocational guidance programmes; • placement services and continued vocational training; • promote employment opportunities and career advancement; • assistance in sourcing, obtaining, maintaining and returning to work; and • reasonable accommodation in the workplace as well as vocational and professional rehabilitation. Although the Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act 130 of 1993 was amended recently to include rehabilitation, re-integration and return to work (RTW) as part of its objectives, it will be argued that South Africa needs to initiate targeted legislation and policies that make disability management functions mandatory. Employers’ obligations need to be set out clearly in the Act, because, as it stands, the following lacunae exist: • There is no obligation to appoint Case Managers; • Dismissal protection is not provided for; • The regulation of negative incentives to assist with RTW compliance is lacking; and • The roles of different stakeholders in the RTW process require clarification. Without South Africa having an appropriate and detailed RTW framework, ill or injured employees stand the risk of losing their jobs and becoming dependent on family members and/or disability grants. Against this background, a comparative analysis of international and regional law and the RTW practices of two foreign jurisdictions were made. This enabled the author to devise recommendations and identify the roles of the government, employers, employees and Case Managers. The primary objective of this thesis is to determine how and to what extent regional and international standards and RTW programmes in other countries could assist in developing and amending the current legislative and policy framework in South Africa to promote the RTW of disabled employees.

The issue of portability of social security benefits is a daunting issue facing migrant workers in both Southern Africa and the world in general. In the Southern African Development Community region migration seems to be driven mainly by the need to attain economic freedom. The fact of the matter is that migrant workers from Lesotho and Swaziland who work and have worked in South Africa do play a major role in boosting these countries’ economies. Another issue that cannot be ignored is the fact that circular migration as a phenomenon is unlikely to come to an end any time soon in this part of the world. This means that social security benefits of migrant workers and its portability should be an issue that is dealt with cautiously and speedily, especially in terms of looking at the millions of unclaimed social security benefits reported each year by social security funds and schemes in South Africa. While examining the extent to which selected SADC member states, namely Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa, have undertaken to combat this issue, international and regional instruments that have a bearing on social security rights are analysed and the realisation is that in as much as these do provide for social security rights and portability of benefits thereof, a lack of ratification and implementation play a vital role in achieving efficient portability of these rights. Although South Africa, as the largest migrant-receiving country in the SADC region, does provide for the right to social security in its Constitution, the fragmented nature of its social security framework, together with other factors such lack of information, exploitation by employers, distances travelled to lay claims and a non-existent social security adjudication system means that migrant workers are normally left with lack of redress when their contracts of employment reach an end. On the other hand, Swaziland and Lesotho, as migrant-sending countries, do not even have provisions in their constitutions that specifically deal with the right to social security. This means that citizens who work abroad do not have sufficient social security coverage in either country, as well as in South Africa as a host country. Consequently, multilateral and bilateral agreements on social security are pivotal in addressing this issue of unclaimed social security benefits as they go a long way in making sure that migrant workers are provided with adequate social security protection and coverage as a whole. Migrant sending countries also need to undertake unilateral initiatives to guarantee that their citizens are adequately protected in this specific sphere of social security. Examples are further drawn from the best practices of different regions in the world, namely the Southeast Asian Nations Region, Caribbean Community and Common Market and the Southern Common Market. The above-mentioned regions have established multilateral social security agreements that seek social security protection for migrant workers who play an undeniable role in their economies. Bilateral social security agreements between Zambia and Malawi, together with the one between Sweden and Philippines, are taken into consideration as best practices that Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa may draw examples from when drawing up and concluding their own bilateral social security agreements. The Philippines’ unilateral initiatives are also discussed and hailed as the best practices that migrant-sending countries such as Lesotho and Swaziland may further draw examples from. The Philippines has developed strategies aimed at guaranteeing social protection for its migrant workers abroad and further makes sure that it enters into bilateral agreements with any country that receives services from its citizens. While the need to conclude multilateral and bilateral agreements on social security cannot be denied, there is also a need for migrant-sending countries to come up with unilateral initiatives to lessen the burden on migrant-receiving countries in this social security domain. Sectors such as the mining sector should also have mining-specific agreements that specifically deal with issues related to migrant mine workers. Lack of statistics of migrant workers moving in and out of South Africa has also been labelled as one of the reasons halting access and portability of social security benefits; hence there is a need to develop a data-base aimed at keeping track of all migrant workers, retired and otherwise. Migrant workers who seek redress regarding access of their unclaimed or unpaid social security benefits also have to be provided with comprehensive protection from the courts of law. This therefore means that an adjudication system should be established to deal with social security woes so that those seeking redress have adequate legal support.

This thesis seeks to resolve the ambiguities surrounding the use of the unfair labour practice relating to the provision of “benefits” as a dispute resolution mechanism in South African labour law. This mechanism has been plagued with uncertainty, primar-ily because of the lack of a statutory definition of benefits. Evidently, the interpretation and application of benefits have been left to the courts, resulting in two diverse ap-proaches being endorsed. The first one sought to confer a narrow connotation on ben-efits, the rationale being to separate benefits from the definition of “remuneration”. It further sought to limit the use of this unfair labour practice to instances where the benefit claimed was exclusively provided for ex contractu or ex lege. The primary ob-jective was to protect the divide between disputes of right and disputes of interest, a distinction that is recognised and encouraged in our law. The second approach was one that fostered an expansive interpretation of the term, deeming it to be part of re-muneration. Needless to say it resulted in countless items being subject to determina-tion as benefit disputes. Furthermore, it extended benefits beyond those rooted in con-tract or legislation, including those granted or offered subject to the exercise of mana-gerial discretion. The supplementary challenges firstly relate to the absence of statutory direction on the standards of fairness to be applied in evaluating employer conduct. Secondly, the judiciary has provided opportunities for employees to utilise recourse other than the unfair labour practice provisions to address benefit disputes. Such leeway comes in the form of contractual recourse as well as the ability to institute strike action. In search of solutions to the problems identified above, the study explores and anal-yses the history of the unfair labour practice concept. Thereafter, an extensive exam-ination of the developments in this area of the law is undertaken. This includes a com-prehensive analysis of legislation, case law and academic writings. Having docu-mented and analysed the South African position both pre- and post-democracy, the study critically evaluates these sources of law. The study further involves a diagnostic assessment of international legal instruments and foreign law in order to extract best practices. The conclusions reached are, firstly, that an expansive interpretation of benefits is warranted. This is in line with a purposive interpretation of the LRA, which promotes the constitutional right to fair labour practices and international law. This study there-fore proposes a wide-ranging definition of the term benefits. Secondly, standards of substantive and procedural fairness have been found to be applicable in evaluating employer conduct. As such, fairness guidelines based on these standards have been developed. Thirdly, in respect of the alternate avenues available to resolve benefit disputes, it has been found that although there are strong indicators that point to a conclusion that contractual recourse has been supplanted by statutory recourse, such a finding cannot be definitively made. Furthermore, section 64(4) as it stands provides for the right to strike over unilateral changes to terms and conditions of employment, which includes unilateral changes to pre-existing benefits. However, the judiciary can limit the use of this section in benefit disputes by prioritising the substance of the dis-pute over its form. This thesis ultimately proposes the incorporation of a Code of Good Practice into the LRA. The Code of Good Practice: Benefits adopts the principal research findings of this study. It encourages the enforcement of benefit disputes through the dispute res-olution institutions set up by the LRA. The adoption of this Code (The Code of Good Practice: Benefits) will bring certitude to this field of labour law.