Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Ticari hayatta sıklıkla karşılaşılan hukuki işlemler ve özellikle sözleşmeler dolayısıyla borç ilişkileri ortaya çıkmaktadır. Borç ilişkisi ise sözleşmenin taraflarını alacaklı veya borçlu konuma getirmektedir. Ticari hayatın baş aktörlerinden olan tacir; borç ilişkisinde alacaklı tarafta yer aldığında, alacağını elde edememe kaygısını taşıyabilir. Bu kaygıyı minimize etmek amacıyla borçludan bir güvence istemesi tabidir. Bu bağlamda tacir, ipotek veya rehin ile alacağını güvence altına almaya çalışabilir. Ancak gerek ipotek ve rehin tesis edilebilecek unsurların sınırlı olması gerekse bu işlemlerin fazla masraflı olması nedeniyle tacir ayni teminatlardan daha çok şahsi teminatlara yönelmektedir. Kefalet sözleşmesi ise en sık başvurulan şahsi teminatlardan biridir. Çünkü genellikle dostane ilişkilere dayanmaktadır. Dolayısıyla kefalet sözleşmesi ticari hayatın vazgeçilmez unsurlarındandır. 01.07.2012 tarihinde yürürlüğe giren 6098 sayılı Türk Borçlar Kanunu ile borçlar hukuku alanında, yine aynı tarihte yürürlüğe giren 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu ile de ticaret hukuku alanında reform sayılabilecek değişimler yaşanmıştır. Her iki Kanundaki değişimler gerek ticari iş, ticari işletme, ticaret ortaklıkları ve dolayısıyla tacire ilişkin hükümleri ve gerekse kefalet sözleşmesi başta olmak üzere teminat sözleşmelerini yeni bir yapılanmaya götürmüştür. Bu çerçevede çalışmada; Türk Ticaret Kanunu ve Türk Borçlar Kanunu'nda yapılan reform değişiklikler harmanının ticari işlerde kefalet sözleşmesine ve kefile yansımaları ele alınmıştır. Konu, gerçek kişi tacir-tüzel kişi tacir ayrımı doğrultusunda incelenip ticari işlerde kefalet sözleşmesi düzenlendiğinde, sözleşmenin durumu ve tacirlerin sorumlulukları değerlendirilmiştir. Değerlendirme yapılırken, tüzel kişi tacir sıfatına sahip olan ticaret ortaklıkları, ticari işletme işleten dernekler ve vakıflar, ticari şekilde işletilmek üzere kurulan kamu tüzel kişileri ve ayrıca bankaların kefalet sözleşmesindeki konumu, durumu ve sorumluluğu yenilenen hükümler ışığında irdelenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kefalet Sözleşmesi, Kefil, Sorumluluk, Tacir, Ticari İş. Relations of loan rise due to legal transactions and especially contracts which are frequently experienced in business life. Relations of loan put contracting parties either debtor or creditor positions. When trader, who is one of the main actors of business life, is on creditor side; might have concern about not collecting the debt. And it is quite natural that he can ask for security to minimize this concern. In this regard, trader could secure his claim by hypothec and pleadings. However, trader heads for personal guarantee rather than real security as both the components which can establish hypothec and pleading are limited and these transactions are too costly. Suretyship contract is one of the most chosen personal guarantees. Because, it relies on amicable terms. So, suretyship contract is one of the indispensable components of business life. Turkish Code of Obligations, Law Number 6098 which came into force on 01.07.2012 and Turkish Commercial Code, Law Number 6102 which entered in force on the same date are the changes which can be called as reforms. With changes in both laws, not only commercial affair, business organization, business partnership and accordingly the terms as to trader, but also contract of guarantees, particularly suretyship contracts were re-structured. Within this scope in this study, changes in Turkish Commercial Code and Turkish Code of Obligations and their influence on surety and suretyship contracts in business affairs are interpreted. Subject is assessed in line with difference between real person trader and legal person trader and when suretyship contract is drawn up in business affairs, condition of contract and responsibilities of traders are handled. The business partnerships which have legal person trader title, associations and foundations which run business organizations, the public entities established to be operated commercially, and position, condition and responsibility of banks in suretyship contracts are addressed in the light of renewed terms. Key Words: Suretyship Contract, Surety, Responsibility, Trader, Commercial Affair.

There is enough evidence on how climate change consequences will adversely affect Africa despite the fact that it is the continent that has least contributed to the problem. The international climate change regime recognises Africa's vulnerability to climate change and provides for special treatment under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (the UNFCCC). Thus, the international climate change regime presents an opportunity for African countries to adapt and mitigate the consequences of climate change through the UNFCCC mechanism. However, the international climate change legal regime has not been able to adequately assist African countries to address the consequences of climate change under the vulnerability principle. Although the current international climate change regime requires developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, Africa needs to take steps itself to address the problem, because it is most vulnerable to the consequences of climate change. The African Union (AU) could play a great role in ensuring that the international climate change regime addresses the consequences of climate change in the region. This could be done through fostering strong African common positions during international climate change negotiations. A strong common position could strengthen African bargaining power and might result in more funding, capacity building and technology development and transfer for adaptation and mitigation programmes under the UNFCCC-Kyoto Conference of Parties. However, reaching a strong common position requires the cooperation of the AU member states. In this context, African regional integration is an opportunity for the AU to foster such cooperation among member states. The Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (the Abuja Treaty), the Constitutive Act of the AU and the Protocol on the Relations between the AU and Regional Economic Communities (RECs) prioritise regional economic integration and call for states' cooperation, but the call has not yet been heeded. To realise deep and viable African integration, there must be a well-structured institutional and legal framework that defines the relationship between the AU, the AEC and the RECs. African regional integration is also seen as an avenue whereby the AU can create its own regional climate-change regime. In this regard, the AU's and RECs' normative framework on climate change is examined in order to assess whether it adequately integrates climate change issues. This study finds that although Africa is most vulnerable to the consequences of climate change, the AU's and RECs' normative framework on climate change is weak and inadequate to address the problem. The Framework should integrate climate change issues in order to achieve sustainable development. The AU should also ensure that member states ratify the relevant treaties and protocols (the Maputo Nature Convention and the Protocol establishing the African Court of Justice and Human Rights) that have not yet been ratified in order that they may become operational. The Maputo Nature Convention puts sustainable development in the forefront of attention as a reaction to the potentially conflicting environmental and developmental challenges facing the continent (such as climate change), but it is not yet in force. This work finds that human rights law can strengthen the AU's role in addressing climate change through its normative framework. The human rights approach to climate change under the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (the Banjul Charter) is a viable avenue because human rights law forms the basis for states' responsibility based on human rights obligations and principles. The extraterritorial application of the Banjul Charter presents an avenue for AU institutions such as the Human Rights Commission and the African Human Rights Court to curb the effects of climate change through a human rights lens. The future of the AU is presented within the context of a set of recommendations that identify strong African regional integration as an avenue through which the AU can foster the cooperation of member states to address the consequences of climate change in the AU's and RECs' normative frameworks. General recommendations are made on the need for the international climate change regime to pay more attention to issues of funding, capacity building and technology development and transfer on the basis of the vulnerability principle and in relation to the principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. Also, the AU needs to strengthen its legal and institutional structures to ensure deep African integration that is capable of addressing common challenges such as the consequences of climate change.

Tarafların sözleşmeden kaynaklanan sorumluluklarını kararlaştırılan zamanda ifa etmemeleri birtakım sorunlara sebep olmaktadır. Özellikle davaların kısa sürede sonuçlandırılamaması, zarar ve kusurun ispatı gibi güçlükler alacaklıyı borcun ifasını sağlayacak arayışlara sevk etmektedir. Cezai şart günümüzde borçlar hukukunda, ticaret hukukunda, iş hukukunda ve medeni hukukta geniş uygulama alanına sahiptir. Tarafların kolay bir şekilde ve kendi iradeleriyle istedikleri gibi kararlaştırabilmeleri cezai şartın sıklıkla başvurulan hukuki işlem olmasının en önemli nedenlerindendir. Borçluyu ifaya zorlama, zararın tazmin edilmesi ve alacağın teminat altına alınması gibi birçok temel işlevi olan cezai şart borçlunun, asıl borcunu ilerde hiç veya gereği gibi ifa etmemesi ya da geç ifa etmesi durumunda, alacaklıya ödemeyi önceden taahhüt ettiği edimdir. Cezâî şart anlaşmasından doğan borç, asıl borca bağlı feri bir borçtur. Bu bakımdan asıl borç yoksa cezai şartın varlığından bahsedilemez. Ancak ifa zamanından sonra cezai şart, niteliği veya miktarı bakımından bağımsız bir edim haline dönüşür. ?Sözleşmelerde Cezai Şart? konulu çalışmamız, üç bölümden oluşmaktadır. Giriş kısmında çalışmanın önemi, amacı, yöntemi, kaynakları ve değerlendirme metodu hakkında bilgi verilmiştir. Birinci bölümde hem modern hukuk hem de İslam hukukuna göre sözleşme, şart ve cezai şart kavramları incelenmiş, cezai şartın konusu, amacı, benzer kavramlarla ilişkisi ve çeşitleri araştırılmış, hukuki niteliği, unsurları ve muaccel olmasının şartları tespit edilmiş, İslâm hukukuna göre para borçlarında ve diğer borçlarda cezai şartın hükmü tahlil edilmiştir. İkinci bölümde amacı bakımından sınıflandırılan sözleşmelere cezai şartın etkisi araştırılmıştır. Bu bağlamda sözleşme çeşidi hakkında kısa bilgi verilmiş İslâm hukukçularının görüşleri delilleriyle birlikte tespit edilmiştir. Üçüncü bölümde cezai şartın tadili, iptali ve sona ermesi başlığı altında, modern hukukla mukayeseli olarak cezai şart miktarının indirilmesinin veya artırılmasının kriterleri tespit edilmiş, cezâî şartın iptali ve sona ermesi konusu araştırılmıştır. Sonuç kısmında ise `Sözleşmelerde Cezai Şart? konulu çalışmadan elde ettiğimiz neticeler ifade edilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: İslâm Hukuku, Cezai şart, Borç, Faiz, Zarar. Not performing the responsibilities of two partners on a stated time causes some problems. Especially not ending of the lawsuits in short time and difficulties such as proving of damage and negligence lead to searching to provide executing of debt. Penal clause has a large practice field in law of obligations, trade law, labour law and civil law. Deciding of the partners easily and with their own freedom is one of the most important causes commonly applied process of penal clause. Penal clause having many functions such as forcing to excuting, reimbursing of damage and ensuring the credit is an action that commits to pay to the creditor in case of not performing of the borrower at all in the future. The debt from penal clause contract is a secondary one belonging to the principal debt. So, in the absence of original debt, it is not a case to talk about penal clause. But after the time of execution, penal clause transforms into an independant action. The study titled 'The Penal clause in Contracts' consists of three sections. In the introductory section In the introductory chapter the information has been presented about the goal, the method, resources evaulation method of the study. In the first section, the conditions of the contract and the concept of penal clause have been searched according to both modern law and islamic law and also the subject of penal clause has been examined in terms of its goal and relations with similar concepts and types and also judicial qualification and conditios for being executory and the provision of penal clause with currency debtsand another type of debts according islamic law. In the second section the effects of penal clause to the contracts classified in the respect of the goals have been researched. In this sense a short information has been given about the types of contract and the thoughts of islamic lawyers have been examined. In the third section under the title of remodelling and ending of penal clause, the criteria of the decrease or increase of the quantitity of penal clause in contrast with modern law have been examined and the issue of cancellation and ending of penal clause has been searched. In the conclusion part of the study , the results obtained by the study titled penal clause in contracts have been stated. Key Words: Islamic Law, Penal Clause, Loan, Interest, Los

The thesis considers the approaches followed by the European Union with the Brussels Regime, the federal system of the United States of America under the ‘full faith and credit clause’; the inter-state recognition scheme under the Australia and New Zealand Trans- Tasman judicial system; as well as the convention-approach of the Latin American States. It finds that the most suitable approach for the SACU is the negotiation and adoption by all SACU Member States of a multilateral convention on the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments, comparable to the 1971 Convention of the Hague Conference on Private International Law; the EU Brussels I Regulation and the Latin-American Montevideo Convention, as complemented by the La Paz Convention. It is imperative that a proposed convention should not merely duplicate previous efforts, but should be drafted in the light of the legal, political and socio-economic characteristics of the SACU Member States. The current legislative provisions in force in SACU Member States are compared and analysed, and the comparison and analysis form the basis of a proposal for a future instrument on recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments for the region. A recommended draft text for a proposed Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Judgments for the SACU is included. This draft text could form the basis for future negotiations by SACU Member States

"Bu çalışma, markanın hükümsüzlüğü ve hükümsüzlüğün hukuki sonuçlarını mukayeseli hukukla karşılaştırmak suretiyle incelemeyi amaçlar. İnceleme 3 bölüm-den oluşmaktadır. Marka kavramı ve benzer kavramlarla karşılaştırılması başlıklı birinci bölümde: Markanın tarihçesi ve marka hakkındaki hukuki gelişmeler, teori-ler, markanın iktisabına ilişkin sistemler, markanın tanımı, türler, işlevi ve sınıfları ile markanın benzer kavramlarla karşılaştırılması konuları; markanın Hükümsüz-lük Halleri başlıklı ikinci bölümde: Hükümsüzlük ve iptal kavramları, mutlak ret nedenleri, nispi ret nedenleri ve markanın tescil edilmesinden sonra ortaya çıkan di-ğer hükümsüzlük nedenleri ile KHK da öngörülmemesine rağmen, Tasarıda düzen-lenen ve bizce de hükümsüzlük nedeni olarak kabul edilmesi gereken bazı haller; Hükümsüzlük davası ve hükümsüzlüğün hukuki sonuçları başlıklı üçüncü bölümde ise: hükümsüzlük davasının niteliği ve özellikleri, tarafları, deliller ve değerlendiril-mesi ile resen araştırma sorunu ve hükümsüzlük kararının etkileri ayrıntılı olarak incelenmiş ve gerekli değerlendirmeler yapılmıştır. This study aims at examining the invalidity of trademark and legal conse-quences of invalidity through comparative law. The study is divided into three chapters. The first chapter with the heading of Trademark Concept and It’s Comparison with Similar Concepts reviews the history of trademark and legal evolution of trademark, theories, trademark acquisition systems, definition of trademark, types of trademark, functions and classifications and comparison of trademark with similar concepts; then, the second chapter with the heading of Reasons of Invalidity of Trademark reviews the concepts of invalidity and annulment, absolute refusal reasons, relative refusal reasons and other reasons that can appear after registration of trademark and many reasons, in our opinion, that should be accepted as reasons for invalidity despite those are not foreseen in Decree Law, many further reasons for annullment that are stated in Draft Law as we also share the same opinion; while, finally, the third chapter with the heading of Suit of Invalidity and Legal Consequences of Invalidity reviews in detail, the nature of suit of invalidity and its properties, the parties, proofs and its as-sessment, courts duty of ex-officio assessment, and effects of court verdict for invalidity. Then, necessary evaluations were made at the end of the study."

L’entreprise sociale et solidaire est aujourd’hui reconnue comme un modèle efficace pour mener un projet économique commun dans le respect des personnes. La coopérative, qui est l’une des formes que peut revêtir cette entreprise, répond parfaitement à cette attente car elle autorise la mise en place d’une structure juridique responsable, fondée sur l’application de principes éthiques. Néanmoins, le statut de la coopérative est appelé à évoluer afin de s’adapter au mieux à l’environnement économique dans lequel elle est appelée à s’intégrer. Il est donc nécessaire d’analyser avec un regard nouveau la coopérative pour en faire résolument un outil privilégié de l’économie sociale et solidaire.

The security cession of the rights under life policies marries two separate areas of the law: The Law of cession and the Law of Insurance. This makes for a complex union since varying common law and statutory principles ����ind application, and in reality trade practices also play a role. In theory a cession in securitatem debiti may take one of two possible constructions, namely a pledge or a fiduciary security cession, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Disparity arose when judicial preference was given to the pledge construction while academics preferred the other. The problem, however, was larger than a disagreement as to the better construction. The underlying problem was that there was a lack regarding clarity as to the practical operation of security cession of life policies, in addition to the problems surrounding the construction thereof. As a solution to this problem some academics have suggested legislative intervention. The South African Law Reform Commission, nevertheless, advised against it in 1991 and was of the opinion that the issue was one which our courts would eventually solve. In the 22 years since then, our courts have merely confirmed its preference for the pledge construction. The intricacies of security cessions of life policies have seen no further judicial development. It is probable that the courts do not have enough practical information at hand to advance this area of the law. An investigation into the operation of such cessions in practice was thus necessary. The outcome of the practical investigation reveals that legislative intervention is indeed a viable solution especially since the issues are too complex for the courts to solve. As part of this work, legislation has been drafted and it is recommended that this is inserted into the Security by Means of Movable Property Act .

Le 10 décembre 2010, l’Organisation pour l’harmonisation en Afrique du droit des affaires (Ohada) a adopté un nouvel acte uniforme relatif au droit des coopératives. Au cours des travaux préparatoires, il avait été convenu de définir des règles particulières applicables aux coopératives financières (ou coopératives d’épargne et de crédit, Coopec), dont la désorganisation aurait été à l’origine de la réglementation même des coopératives. Curieusement, elles ont progressivement été extraites du texte et ne figurent pas dans la version finale de l’acte uniforme. L’objectif de cet article est de porter une analyse critique sur cette éviction par le législateur Ohada tant du point de vue de la place de ces organisations dans la société que sous l’angle de l’appréciation du procédé d’uniformisation du droit par l’organisation, qui se trouve ici réduit.

The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision has defined operational risk, legal risk and compliance risk. However, the definitions might not be adequate for countries with a hybrid legal system, such as South Africa. This study aims to provide a practical solution to the problems faced by countries with a hybrid legal system wishing to comply with the Basel Committee’s standards. It is argued that compliance, compliance risk and regulatory risk should all be viewed as constituent components of legal risk, and in turn necessarily also of operational risk in a hybrid legal system. Legal risk is a wide concept which includes all aspects of a legal system, while compliance risk is a narrower concept which only includes the codified aspects of a legal system. Legal risk therefore includes compliance risk. However, the opposite is not true as compliance risk does not include legal risk, and the two concepts are decidedly shown not to be synonymous in a mixed legal system.

The role of the Court of Justice of the European Union in the process of direct tax integration in the European Union (EU) has been widely discussed in the academic literature, while another important actor, the European Commission, has attracted much less attention. The Commission’s input is commonly perceived to be limited to the right of legislative initiative. This study questions such an oversimplified interpretation and draws a more nuanced picture of EU tax harmonisation by integrating an analysis of the complex regulatory approaches adopted by the Commission for the establishment and smooth functioning of the Internal Market. It is argued that the past decade brought a notable change in the Court-dominated pattern of direct tax integration. This change is apparent first in the evolution of enforcement strategies under Articles 258 and 260 TFEU; and second, in the increased reliance upon non-binding regulatory measures. Both developments have strengthened the role of the Commission, supplying it with more possibilities for influencing national direct tax systems, despite the reluctance of Member States to agree upon legislative harmonisation. Against this background, the procedural and substantive problems associated with these instruments require closer examination. The normative scope of this research covers the key procedural problems related to the infringement procedure and non-binding regulatory measures. The empirical component explores the Commission’s enforcement and coordination practices, drawing particular attention to two case studies: the tax treatment of losses in cross-border situations and exit taxation. Following the analysis of enforcement and coordination in the field of direct taxation, the study argues the need and proposes potential solutions for (i) the developing of a more comprehensive procedural framework for the infringement procedure and non-binding regulatory acts; (ii) the strengthening of accountability mechanisms; and (iii) the enhancing of the effectiveness of their application.

The objectives of this research paper are: to examine the status of collective agreements under the common law; highlight impacts of statutory intervention on common law perception of collective agreements, and discuss how the National industrial Court (NIC) and the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 (as altered) have broadened the horizon of enforceability of collective agreements in Nigeria. Reliance is placed principally on statutes, judicial decisions, textbooks written by learned authors as well as international best standard and practices championed by the International Labour Organization (ILO) and practices in some foreign jurisdictions. The findings of the research were that under the common law, collective agreements are ordinarily not binding, they are considered as a ‘gentleman's agreement‘, a product of a trade unionist's pressure, binding only in honour or on the goodwill of the parties thereto, unless and until it is incorporated expressly or impliedly into the contract of employment. However, statutory intervention has slightly altered the common law notion of collective agreements, e.g. where the Minister of Labour and Productivity is empowered to declare, by order, that part or the whole of an agreement deposited in his office is binding on the parties. Furthermore, with the enactment of the NIC Act and the listing of the NIC in the 1999 Constitution as a superior court of record (following the alteration of the Constitution, necessitated by the N.U.E.E. V BPE case), the Court now has exclusive jurisdiction to adjudicate on a wide range of labour matters, industrial relations and application of international best practices such as the standard and principles of the International Labour Organization (ILO), and practices in foreign jurisdictions. It has been argued that the enforceability of collective agreements is in tandem with international best practices, which the NIC can readily give effect to, if it is pleaded and established/ proved as a fact. This has invariability expanded the frontiers of enforceability of such agreements. Therefore, the common law position on the status of collective agreements has been rendered otiose and obsolete, giving way to the sparkling provisions of enforceability guaranteed by the NIC Act and the Constitution respectively. Notwithstanding, it is highly recommended that parties to a collective agreement should expressly state their intention whether or not to be bound; the duration of the agreement should be stated and whether, and when, it should, be reviewed; experts and other stakeholders should be properly consulted before an agreement is entered into; an arbitration clause may be included in case a party breaches its own part of the agreement. Industrial democracy ought to be promoted in all sectors. Strikes and lock outs should be used only as a last resort for enforcing compliance with a collective agreement, because these industrial actions cause devastating effects on the economy and on the lives of the citizenry generally.

Faire du Foncier un fait économique total, et du capital le moteur du développement, c’est donner un blanc-seing à la marchandisation de la terre. Faut-il vraiment que le Mali cède ses terres agricoles et ses ressources foncières pour accéder au développement? Pour quel développement ? Le développement exige-t-il le sacrifice de l’agriculture familiale paysanne et des méthodes traditionnelles séculaires de gestion du foncier ? Depuis son accession à la souveraineté nationale en 1960, le Mali, pays pauvre de l’Afrique au Sud du Sahara cherche à atteindre mais en vain un essor économique, social et industriel et cela par tous les moyens, à l’exception de la mise en place d’un modèle endogène de développement. Dans cette quête, il a dû souscrire au modèle de développement dominant qui n’est autre que celui capitaliste, fragilisé depuis toujours et présentement par les conséquences de ses limites à savoir la succession des crises alimentaire, sociale environnementale financière. Si ce revers du capitalisme a eu des effets sociaux importants dans les pays du sud, il a également conduit certains pays émergents et auteurs de capitaux à s’accaparer des ressources naturelles des pays les plus pauvres. Pris en tenaille entre la préservation de ses spécificités socio-écologiques sur le plan foncier et son envie d’atteindre le développement durable, le Mali voit dans la marchandisation des ressources foncières à grande échelle une véritable aubaine. Ainsi, il va adapter son cadre juridico-politique d’accès aux ressources foncières (au risque de décalage, d’incohérence et de flou entre ses stratégies politiques et la réalité foncière) afin d’attirer de nouveaux acteurs. Il prend par la même occasion le risque d’exposer son peuple aux conséquences prévisibles (la spoliation des droits fonciers coutumiers, l’accroissement de la pauvreté rurale et des inégalités, la destruction de l’agriculture familiale…) de ce passage sans transition à une économie mondialisée alors que les enjeux fonciers bien maîtrisés se révèlent être une véritable stratégie de gestion équilibrée de tout développement et surtout du développement durable.

Comme un organisme vivant, l'entreprise naît, vit, et peut être le siège de désordres divers, dont les plus graves sont susceptibles de provoquer sa disparition. Ce qui ne saurait laisser indifférent tout législateur soucieux de l'équilibre socioéconomique et de la sécurité des transactions. C'est ainsi que de nos jours, la finalité traditionnelle du droit de la faillite, à savoir, le désintéressement des créanciers, sans pour autant disparaître complètement, est passé au second plan, derrière le souci de la sauvegarde et de la continuité de l'exploitation commerciale. Divers instruments juridiques sont alors déployés dans le but d'éviter la cessation des paiements du débiteur qui connaît des difficultés.C'est dans ce contexte que s'inscrit le concordat préventif prévu par l'Acte Uniforme de l'OHADA, relatif au droit des procédures collectives d'apurement du passif. Il s'agit d'un instrument de nature hybride, mi-conventionnel, mi-judiciaire, accordé à l'issue d'une procédure dite de règlement préventif au débiteur qui, sans être en cessation des paiements, connaît une situation économique et financière difficile, mais non irrémédiablement compromise. C'est donc un accord librement négocié et arrêté entre le débiteur et certains de ces créanciers et auquel l'intervention du juge confère la force exécutoire. Toutefois, le dispositif mis en place par le législateur africain souffre de certaines carences de nature à l'empêcher d'atteindre son but de prévention et de résolution des difficultés des entreprises. L'une des causes de l'inefficacité du concordat préventif est l'imprécision du critère d'admissibilité, ce qui a pour effet une ouverture tardive du processus, qui, à son tour, influe négativement sur l'exécution du concordat une fois conclu et homologué. Il s'est dès lors avéré utile d'explorer de nouvelles pistes pouvant conduire à une plus grande efficacité en matière de sauvegarde des entreprises en difficulté dans l'espace OHADA.

Il presente elaborato mira ad analizzare le forme di tutela accordate in sede europea al “consumatore” si servizi finanziari, al fine di verificarne, da un lato, l’adeguatezza rispetto all’evoluzione normativa che ha interessato tale segmento del mercato (Capitolo I) e, dall’altro lato, le modalità e le tecniche di diffusione nell’ordinamento italiano (Capitolo II) e in quelli dei principali Paesi Europei (Capitolo III). L’indagine muove dal processo di integrazione comunitaria avviato nel 1999 con l’elaborazione del “Financial Service Action Plan”, mettendo in luce come tale azione stia progressivamente contribuendo, attraverso la predisposizione di nuove regole e principi, alla creazione di un “diritto privato europeo”. In tale contesto, infatti, lo spazio rappresentato dal mercato dei servizi finanziari è significativo e di eccezionale rilevanza. Si è osservato, infatti, come l’integrazione dei mercati finanziari – avviata dalle Istituzioni europee, tra l’altro, attraverso l’aggiornamento della normativa comunitaria sui servizi di investimento (direttiva MiFID) – abbia avviato, e progressivamente sostenga, la massima armonizzazione delle regole economiche e giuridiche applicabili alle relazioni con i clienti, anche attraverso l’introduzione di nuovi meccanismi di tutela dei consumatori, volti a preservare la parte “debole” del rapporto contrattuale dai fisiologici rischi connessi alla prestazione dei servizi finanziari. In tale contesto, si è evidenziato come l’omogeneizzazione delle regole dei mercati finanziari abbia comportato, da un lato, l’aumento del flusso di risparmio destinato agli investimenti cross-border, nonché il progressivo coinvolgimento dei consumatori nelle transazioni finanziarie ma, dall’altro lato, abbia contribuito ad esporre maggiormente gli stessi ai rischi connessi agli eventi di crisi che hanno interessato le economie a capitalismo avanzato (ad esempio, il default della banca d’affari Lehman Brother’s). L’esposizione della clientela a situazioni di instabilità, peraltro, è fortemente avvertita anche sul versante dei servizi bancari tradizionali, non soltanto in ragione della diffusione del modello di banca universale e multicanale, ma che per effetto dell’attesa internazionalizzazione dei player del mercato, conseguente al livellamento del relativo “campo da gioco”. Si è perciò sottolineato come la proliferazione delle controversie intermediario-cliente nei diversi segmenti del comparto bancario-finanziario abbia mostrato come il nuovo sistema di tutele introdotto dal legislatore comunitario non sia stato in grado, da solo, di garantire la massima protezione dei consumatori dai rischi connessi alla fruizione dei servizi finanziari. A tale proposito, ci si è interrogati – anche alla luce della copiosa letteratura nazionale ed europea in materia – riguardo ai rimedi esperibili per superare le criticità legate alle procedure giudiziali di risoluzione delle controversie transfrontaliere (i.e. la durata dei tempi processuali, ovvero il costo per accedere alla giustizia), giungendo ad individuare nei sistemi alternativi di risoluzione delle controversie (c.d. ADR) una valida alternativa rispetto alla tutela giudiziale ordinaria. Ancora nel corso del Capitolo I, si è dato conto di come tali meccanismi di mediazione e conciliazione – caldeggiati e, in parte, disciplinati dalle istituzioni comunitarie – potranno, da un lato, comportare la semplificazione e la deburocratizzazione degli apparati giudiziari e, dall’altro, offrire un ulteriore presidio di tutela per i cittadini europei, particolarmente esposti ai rischi connessi ad attività complesse come la prestazione dei servizi di investimento. Come evidenziato nel corso del Capitolo II, non sorprende che in un settore fisiologicamente esposto al rischio di contenzioso come il comparto dei servizi finanziari, le Istituzioni comunitarie abbiano introdotto e progressivamente sospinto la diffusione in Europa dei modelli di ADR, appunto come strumenti di risoluzione delle controversie alternativi agli ordinari rimedi di natura giudiziaria. E sulla spinta comunitaria, anche il legislatore italiano sta progressivamente introducendo nel nostro ordinamento nuove modalità e nuovi sistemi per la risoluzione stragiudiziale delle controversie insorte in sede di prestazione dei servizi finanziari: tra le prime, la disciplina della mediazione finalizzata alla conciliazione delle controversie in materia civile e commerciale (di cui al d.lgs. 4 marzo 2010, n. 28); tra i secondi, i due nuovi organismi di derivazione pubblica, rappresentati dall’Arbitro Bancario Finanziario attivo presso la Banca d’Italia e la Camera di Conciliazione e Arbitrato, costituita presso la Consob. Si è visto, quindi, che le esigenze di tutela della clientela hanno condotto negli ultimi anni all’emanazione di regole e principi, come la disciplina della trasparenza del 2003 (successivamente novellata nel 2009 e, da ultimo, nel 2011 per recepire le nuove regole in materia di contratti di credito ai consumatori) e le regole di funzionamento dei sistemi di risoluzione stragiudiziale delle controversie, che operano proprio a completamento del quadro delle iniziative di tutela della clientela bancaria e finanziaria, come strumenti di redress rapidi, economici ed efficaci. Sempre nel corso del Capitolo II, quindi, si analizzano le caratteristiche principali dell’organismo nazionale deputato alla risoluzione stragiudiziale delle controversie bancarie, costituito dall’Arbitro Bancario Finanziario, al fine di rappresentare la natura giuridica di tale meccanismo, il relativo ambito di applicazione territoriale ed oggettivo, nonché individuando i rimedi esperibili dagli intermediari avverso le decisioni pronunciate dall’ABF. L’indagine prosegue attraverso l’indicazione degli elementi essenziali della Camera di Conciliazione e Arbitrato, istituita presso la Consob al fine di redimere le controversie insorte in sede di prestazione dei servizi di investimento, anche attraverso un approfondito confronto con la natura giuridica e l’ambito di applicazione dell’ABF. Infine, nel Capitolo III dell’elaborato – dopo aver esaminato le principali ragioni poste alla base della diffusione degli strumenti ADR in Europa, le principali iniziative legislative (direttiva mediation) e di autoregolamentazione (reti EEJ-NET e FIN-NET) in materia – si offre un’analisi dei principali sistemi ADR attivi in Europa, attraverso una dettagliata indagine comparatistica che ha interessato gli ordinamenti francese, spagnolo, tedesco e inglese. La menzionata indagine, in particolare, ha messo in luce le principali differenze e le numerose analogie presenti tra i sistemi ADR attivi nell’Unione europea, principalmente con riguardo alla natura giuridica dei rispettivi organismi, alle funzioni svolte, alle condizioni di accesso ai sistemi, nonché alle caratteristiche delle relative decisioni.

Une des conséquences de la crise économique et financière de 2008 réside dans des tentations incessantes et continues de récupérer la confiance ébranlée du consommateur vis-à-vis des professionnels du secteur des services financiers. Alors que la protection du consommateur constitue un thème fréquent en droit français -et récent en droit libanais- une telle recherche fait défaut en matière spécifique aux services bancaires et aux services des assurances en droit comparé. En effet, le sujet est souvent présenté sous des angles séparés de la protection du consommateur dans chacun des deux services, dans chacun des deux droits. Il en découle qu’un approfondissement global, mais non exhaustif, sur « la protection du consommateur des services bancaires et des services d’assurance » dans une perspective comparative entre les deux droits, français et libanais, nous permettrait de mieux connaître les caractéristiques d’une telle combinaison. Ainsi, une série de questions se pose : Quels sont les contours des protections octroyées à ces consommateurs ? Comment leurs intérêts collectifs et individuels sont-ils défendus par les gouvernements, les législateurs, les juges, et la société civile ? Quelles sont les conséquences juridiques d’une telle protection qui s’avère être parfois « irrationnelle » ? Cette recherche a donc pour finalité de tenter de répondre à toutes ces questions, à travers deux parties. Dans la première, il s’agit d’analyser la protection octroyée aux intérêts collectifs et individuels des consommateurs des services bancaires et d’assurance. Dans la seconde, l’attention sera portée sur la mise en oeuvre d’une protection curative, parfois « déraisonnable » des consommateurs des services bancaires et d’assurance.

Cette thèse propose une théorie générale des normes internationales qui prescrivent l'existence ou l'inexistence d'une règle interne. Cette entreprise, qui est une première dans la doctrine de droit international, présente, à titre principal, deux intérêts. Premièrement, elle démontre que le concept de normes internationales prescrivant l'existence ou l'inexistence d'une règle interne permet de décrire une partie fondamentale du droit international positif, habituellement présentée au moyen d'autres concepts très connus, en particulier le principe de primauté ou de supériorité du droit international et le conflit ou la contrariété entre droit international et droit interne. Deuxièmement, en s'appuyant sur 250 instruments et 750 jugements, extraits principalement du droit des affaires, du droit de l'environnement, du droit des droits de l'homme, du droit pénal, du droit du travail et du droit de l'Union européenne, cette thèse prouve qu'il existe un régime commun à l'ensemble des normes internationales qui prescrivent l'existence ou l'inexistence d'une règle interne. = This thesis establishes a general theory of international norms which prescribe the validity or the invalidity of an internal rule. This research, the first of its sort to be undertaken in international legal doctrine, follows two principal lines of enquiry. Firstly, it demonstrates that the concept of international norms which prescribe the validity or the invalidity of an internal rule provide a basis on which to describe a fundamental part of positive international law, usually presented by mean of well-know others concepts as the principle of primacy or superiority of the international law, and the conflict or contradiction between international law and internal law. Secondly, this thesis draws on more than 250 legal instruments and 750 judgments, relating principally to business law, environmental law, human-rights law, criminal law, labour law and European Union law, to illustrate the existence of a coherent regime governing all international norms prescribing the validity or the invalidity of an internal rule.

Os bancos nunca foram tão grandes como depois da Crise de 2008. No momento de maior pânico, logo após a quebra do Lehman Brothers, autoridades do mundo inteiro autorizaram fusões e aquisições antes vetadas. Era preciso garantir a estabilidade do sistema financeiro alegava-se e tentar preservar a concorrência nesse instante apenas aumentaria o pânico. O Brasil não ficou imune a esse movimento. Fusões como a do Itaú com o Unibanco e aquisições como a da Nossa Caixa pelo Banco do Brasil levaram o setor a um grau de concentração nunca visto antes. A discussão entre o Conselho Administrativo de Defesa Econômica (CADE) e o Banco Central, sobre quem deve julgar tais concentrações, faz parecer que existe uma contradição entre a disciplina constitucional da defesa da concorrência e a garantia da segurança e estabilidade das instituições financeiras. O resultado é a proliferação de instituições hipertrofiadas, os megabancos, em prejuízo desses mesmos princípios da ordem concorrencial estabelecidos constitucionalmente. Os principais argumentos em favor dos megabancos seriam, primeiro, o de que as rendas derivadas de poder no mercado que estes auferem (o chamado valor de franquia) formaria um colchão que aumentaria a sua resistência no caso de choques como o de 2008. Em segundo lugar, sugere-se que esses bancos, ao crescerem, acumulariam ganhos de escala, de escopo e de eficiência custo. Este trabalho propõe que não existe nenhum antagonismo entre a defesa da concorrência e a regulação bancária tradicional, de cunho prudencial e sistêmico. Propõe ainda que o modelo dos megabancos coloca um grande risco para a sociedade, tratando-se na realidade de um movimento estratégico de grandes instituições para acumular mais poder no mercado. São dois os motivos pelos quais se defende que não existe nenhum ganho no crescimento dessas instituições. Em primeiro lugar, as economias de escala se esgotam muito cedo, proposição com amplo suporte teórico e empírico. Na previsão mais otimista, bancos com mais do que 25 bilhões de dólares em ativos já estão na área de deseconomias de escala. Tampouco existem economias de escopo que autorizem a concentração de atividades tão diversas como as de banco comercial e de investimento. Bancos que concentram muitas atividades são, na realidade, avaliados negativamente pelo mercado. Mesmo os ganhos de eficiência custo, resultantes de uma melhor gestão de instituições mal administradas, não tem suporte empírico relevante. Em segundo lugar, uma estrutura moderna do setor bancário pressupõe bancos especializados e concentrados nas áreas em que têm maior eficiência. São bancos menores, que dividem com os mercados financeiros e outros intermediários a tarefa de prover o crédito. A concorrência do mercado de capitais, de instituições não bancárias (como gestores de fundos e financeiras) e de instituições não financeiras (como redes de supermercados, correios e empresas comerciais) forçou esses bancos a fazer o descruzamento de subsídios e a abandonar as atividades em que eram menos eficientes. Os megabancos vão na contramão dessa modernização, negando os princípios da Ordem Concorrencial. A reação dessas instituições, entretanto, é contundente. Os bancos procuram o crescimento excessivo, de forma a criar as megainstituições, para colher ganhos que não vêm de uma operação mais eficiente. São ganhos provindos das inconsistências na atuação do regulador. Este trabalho propõe a extensão das doutrinas de comportamento estratégico, de forma a incluir três categorias novas de comportamentos adotados pelos megabancos: 1. Expansão Não-Eficiente de Participação no Mercado: Bancos operam muito além da escala eficiente para obter as vantagens da garantia de socorro aos grandes bancos (o too big to fail), para influenciar a regulação e aumentar lucros e, por fim, para explorar os acionistas não controladores. 2. Saturação Anticompetitiva de Mercados: Bancos acumulam produtos para além do recomendado pelos ganhos de escopo, e também agências além do que geraria ganhos de escala, para bloquear a entrada de novos concorrentes. Mostra-se neste trabalho como o excesso de agências e produtos funciona como uma barreira à entrada, o que explicaria essas expansões como um movimento preventivo. 3. Bloqueio de Modernização Pró-Competitiva: Como uma estrutura moderna do setor obriga uma redução do tamanho dos bancos e, também, uma redução da participação do setor bancário nas atividades de crédito, os bancos tentam bloquear a modernização. O bloqueio é feito através de práticas anticoncorrenciais já conhecidas, como o bloqueio ao acesso de bens essenciais (por exemplo, ao sistema de pagamentos) e as ações concertadas, entre outros. A resposta do regulador para esses comportamentos estratégicos seria a aplicação pura e simples das ferramentas do Direito Concorrencial. Este deve aplicar medidas ordenando a desconcentração de mercados e deve investigar e punir as práticas anticompetitivas. É uma atuação que difere, portanto, da regulação bancária tradicional, em que constantemente se consideram os aspectos prudenciais e sistêmicos. Isso ocorre porque, no caso desses comportamentos, o restabelecimento da livre concorrência é condição necessária e suficiente para garantir a segurança e a higidez dos mercados financeiros. Essa conclusão, aplicada ao Brasil, leva a que se deve proceder à desconcentração no setor, com a adoção de medidas compensatórias para a maioria das fusões recentemente aprovadas. Essas medidas encontram precedente significativo naquelas adotadas tanto na Europa quanto nos Estados Unidos durante a Crise de 2008. Finalmente, algumas das previsões das hipóteses desenvolvidas no trabalho são testadas empiricamente. Foi desenvolvido um modelo jurimétrico que mostra que mais competição resulta em maior estabilidade financeira. O modelo também confronta a abordagem da Nova Economia Institucional com a NeoEstruturalista, mostrando que esta última resulta em mais competição e maior estabilidade financeira.

Dans un contexte où l’on parlerait volontiers de « non-droit » ou de « droit invalide », où l’on serait tenté d’établir une corrélation entre secteur formel ou informel de l’économie et effectivité ou ineffectivité du droit, les modes d’intervention juridique de l’État dans les relations de travail ainsi que leurs formalisations, apparaissent sous-tendus au Togo par des réalités aussi diverses que paradoxales. L’analyse des conditions de production et de mobilisation du droit du travail permet de dégager quelques caractéristiques propres au fonctionnement de ce dernier en tant que système normatif au Togo. L’État peut sembler à la fois omniprésent et absent, puissant et impuissant. Les conditions de production du droit d’apparence hétéronome comme de celui élaboré sous contrôle étatique, conduisent à s’interroger sur la validité de certaines dispositions. Le droit positif apparaît parfois produit sans véritable attention à la question, pourtant essentielle, de l’articulation de ses sources et, quelquefois, selon des voies imprévues. Au travers du prisme particulier de l’analyse des mobilisations du droit du travail, des thématiques apparaissent récurrentes ou marginales, selon que l’on se réfère aux politiques et discours officiels ou bien à la pratique des acteurs institutionnels et sociaux. La réception du droit des relations de travail par ces derniers dépend en réalité non seulement du contexte socio-économique mais aussi des pouvoirs et situations en cause. L’interprétation juridictionnelle témoigne elle-même d’originalité quand ce n’est pas d’invention du droit.