Bibliographie sélective OHADA

The research defines derivatives as private contracts, with future rights and obligations imposed on all parties, used to hedge or transfer risk, which derives value from an underlying asset price or index, which asset price or index may take on various forms. The nature of derivatives is that the instruments are intended to be risk management tools. The objectives of derivatives are either to hedge a risk, or to speculate. Derivatives may be classified by the manner in which they are traded, either over the counter (OTC) or on exchange. Alternatively, derivatives may be classified on the basis of structure and mechanisms, i.e. forwards, futures, options or swaps. Risk and risk management are defined in the third chapter with the focus on merchant banking. The nature of risk is that it is inherent in all activities. The nature of risk management is that it aims to ensure that the risks faced by the merchant bank are managed on a daily basis. The objective of risk management is to ensure that losses are minimised and the appropriate level of risk is taken in order to maximise profits. Risk may be classified as operational, operations, market, systemic, credit and legal risk. A comprehensive discussion of credit risk is presented, as it pertains to the legal risk in derivatives in a merchant bank. This includes insolvency, set-off, netting, credit derivatives and collateral. Legal risk is defined as the risk of loss primarily caused by legal unenforceability (i.e. a defective transaction, for instance a contract), legal liability (i.e. a claim) or failure to take legal steps to protect assets (e.g. intellectual property). The nature of legal risk is that it is caused by jurisdictional and other cross-border factors, inadequate documentation, the behaviour of financial institutions, a lack of internal controls, financial innovation or the inherent uncertainty of the law. The objectives of legal risk management in derivatives are to avoid the direct and indirect costs associated with legal risk materialising. This includes reputational damage. Derivatives attract specific legal risks due to the complexity of the instruments as well as the constant innovation in the market. There remains some legal uncertainty regarding derivatives in terms of gaming, wagering and gambling, as well as insurance. The relationship between risk and derivatives is that due to the complexity and constant innovation associated with derivatives, there are some inherent risks to trading in derivatives. It is therefore important to ensure that there is a vested risk management culture in the derivatives trading environment. Chapter four gives an overview of derivatives legislation in foreign jurisdictions and in South Africa. The contractual and documentation issues are discussed with reference to ad hoc agreements, master agreements and ISDA agreements. The practical implementation issues of master agreements and ad hoc agreements are also discussed. The recommendations are that legal risk management be approached in a similar manner to credit, market and other risk disciplines. A legal risk management policy needs to be developed and implemented. The second recommendation is that a derivative to manage the legal risk in derivatives be developed.

La création intellectuelle accompagne l’humanité. On peut même affirmer que c’est elle qui révèle l’homme à lui-même. Si le droit prend en considération la création en proposant un certain nombre de régimes spécifiques, la nature protéiforme de la propriété intellectuelle ne permet toutefois pas d’appréhender la création sous l’angle de l’unité. Or il s’agit bien d’une notion unitaire. L’étude tant du domaine (première partie) que des caractères (deuxième partie) conduit ainsi à montrer que la création intellectuelle est la manifestation objectivée d’une activité humaine, ce qui lui permet d’être appréhendée par le droit d’abord en tant que chose concrète, ensuite en tant que bien – droits portant sur la chose et sur ses utilités. Si l’on présente souvent la propriété intellectuelle comme étant le droit du reproductible, le caractère de reproductibilité de la création ne permet pas toutefois de la distinguer des autres choses. Il s’agit alors de chercher les spécificités de la création dans son origine, la volonté humaine. Aussi se dessine clairement l’idée que seule la liberté de l’agent –le créateur - dans la réalisation de l’objet –la création - permettra de caractériser une création. La liberté est donc non seulement le critère de la création en tant que produit de l’activité intellectuelle, mais elle est surtout la condition sine qua non de l’existence et de la reconnaissance de celle-ci.

This article suggests that the trend of accepting the supremacy and direct application of international law represents a rethinking of the relationship between international and national law, and that its full implications are yet to be explored. The Article seeks to build on current writings on the subject by analyzing certain regional arrangements and judicial approaches relevant to, but often ignored in the discussion. It attempts not to situate these arrangements or approaches within or outside of the monist/dualist paradigm, but to assess the practical significance of these arrangements for international law, national law, and their respective subjects.

"Inceleme konumuz olan Ipotekli Sermaye Piyasası Araçları; Konut Finansmanı Sistemine Iliskin Çesitli Kanunlarda Degisiklik Yapılması Hakkında Kanun Tasarısı i l e hukukumuza girecek, uzun vadeli ipotege dayalı krediler veya konusu konut olan finansal kiralama sözlesmelerinden dogan alacakların menkul kıymetlestirilmeleri sonucu ortaya çıkan ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçlarıdır. Incelememizin birinci bölümünde, esas olarak ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçlarının tarihçesini ve bununla alakalı ipotekli konut finansman sistemi ile agırlıgı uzun vadeli ipotekli krediler olan kaynakların yabancı hukuklardaki geçmisten bugüne gelisimine baktık. Daha sonra ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçlarının, yine yabancı hukuklardaki yerlerine degindik. Gelisme çizgisi içinde geleneksellesen ve Avrupa ile ABD'de farklılasan ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçlarını karsılastırmalı olarak inceledik ve ABD ve Avrupa ülkelerinde ipotekli kredi verme sistemlerine de genel bir bakıs yapmayı uygun gördük. Bu bölümde, inceledigimiz diger bir konu ise, tezimizin konusunu olusturan ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçları hakkında, kanunlastırmayla mevzuatımıza girecek olan tasarıya ait hükümlerdir. Bu hükümler içinde sadece ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçlarına iliskin SerPK'da yapılan degisikliklere degil, konut finansman sistemine iliskin degisikliklerin hepsine, bütün sistemi anlamak açısından deginilmistir. Ikinci bölümde, ipotekli sermaye piyasası aracı kavramı, tasarıdaki ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçları ve hukuki nitelik yönünden de ipotekli kredilerin menkul kıymetlestirilmesi sonucu ihraç edilecek bu sermaye piyasası araçlarının, ticaret hukukuna göre kıymetli evrak niteligi ve sermaye piyasası hukuku açısından da menkul kıymet nitelikleri incelenmistir. Burada, ABD ile Avrupa'da ikinci ipotek piyasalarındaki sermaye piyasası araçlarının hukuki niteliklerine de göz atılmıstır. Bu bölümde, SerPK'ya yeni tasarı ile getirilen hükümler ile ortaya konulan, her türlü alacak seklindeki varlık menkul kıymetlestirmesine yönelik, bilhassa konumuz bakımından önemli olan konut hariç olmak üzere diger gayrımenkullere yönelik alacakların menkul kıymetlestirilmesinde kullanılacak varlık teminatlı menkul kıymetler ve varlık finansman fonlarından da söz edilmistir. Üçüncü bölümde ise, ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçlarının, ihraç edilebilmesi için hem Sermeye Piyasası Kurulu dısında hem de nezdinde izlenecek yöntem ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçlarına göre ayrıntılı olarak incelenmistir. Son bölümde ise, ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçlarına iliskin, bu araçlar ihraç edildikten sonra hukuki anlamda her bir menkul kıymet tipi için ihraçcılar ve yatırımcıların hak borçları ile bu borçların sona ererek ipotekli sermaye piyasası araçlarının ortadan kalkması incelenmeye çalısılmıstır. [...] This study that name Mortgage Securities includes mortgage securitisation with mortgage credit and leasing for homes. When Konut Finansmanı Sistemine Iliskin Çesitli Kanunlarda Degisiklik Yapılması Hakkında Kanun Tasarısı will effect soon mortgage securities will run regularly in capital market. The study consists four main chapters : First chapter explanations history of mortgage secuirites with mortgage credits evolvement in compare laws. Next to mortgage securities reveal in foreign laws nowadays. Diversifield mortgage secutities which MBS (Mortgage Backed Securites) in USA and Covered Bonds in Europe are revisaled as compare. Additional subject also is which provisions with mortgage securities from law draft in this chapter. This explanation provisions not only concerned mortgage securites, but also they are relevant all home mortgage financings system. This provisions is intented IIK, FKK, THKHK and some tax laws. Mortgage securities conception, mortgage securities legal characteristics which as capital market instrument and negotiable instrument observations in the second chapter. And USA Mortgage Backed Securities, Europe Covered Bonds legal respects maintained in this chapter. As a last subject asset backed securites and asset bonds in law draft whom pursuanced for other property (etc. commercial or another property have settling licence) as a mortgage purses elucidated in this chapter. Third chapter consists mortgage secuiritisation process both inside and outside Capital Market Board. This process explanations both MBS issued in Mortgage Finance Fonds and Covered Bond. Rights and obligation on issued mortgage securities are showed i n fourth chapter. As a last outcame this rights and obligation in his mortgage securities and how are annuled this mortgage securities."

Estabelecimento individual de responsabilidade limitada

Os chefes de Estado africanos, após a transformação da Organização da Unidade Africana em União Africana, propuseram a Nova Parceria para o Desenvolvimento da África (NEPAD), como um quadro para uma nova relação de parceria entre a África e a comunidade internacional. Neste sentido de nova parceria, os dirigentes africanos se engajaram em promover nos seus países, na sua região e no Continente, a paz, a segurança, a democracia, a boa governança, o respeito dos direitos humanos e uma saudável gestão econômica, como uma estratégia para orientar o desenvolvimento da África no século XXI. A NEPAD suscitou uma reação positiva na comunidade internacional. A NEPAD repousa sobre fundamentos de desenvolvimento duradouro no Continente, sem os quais tornam-se impossíveis resultados concretos. Entre esses fundamentos podemos citar: a democracia, a boa governança, a governança econômica e a governança das empresas. Para alcançar o objetivo, a NEPAD propõe reformas institucionais como a utilização de meios de avaliação que permitem instaurar definitivamente a boa governança nas estruturas do Estado. Les chefs d'Etats Africains, après avoir mué l'Organisation de l'Unité Africaine en Union Africaine, ont proposé le Nouveau Partenariat pour le Développement de l'Afrique (NEPAD), comme cadre pour une nouvelle relation de partenariat entre l'Afrique et la communauté internationale. Dans le cadre de ce nouveau partenariat, les dirigeants africains s'engagent à promouvoir dans leurs pays, leur région et dans le continent, la paix, la sécurité, la démocratie, le bonne gouvernance, le respect des droits de l'homme et une saine gestion économique, comme une stratégie pour guider le développement de l’Afrique au 21è Siècle. Le NEPAD a suscité une réaction positive dans la communauté internationale. Le NEPAD repose sur des fondements du développement durable sur le continent, sans lesquels il sera impossible d'arriver à des résultats probants. Parmi ces fondements, on peut citer : la démocratie, la bonne gouvernance, la gouvernance économique et la gouvernance des entreprises. Pour atteindre cet objectif, le NEPAD propose des réformes institutionnelles comme l´utilisation d´outils d'évaluation qui permettront d'instaurer définitivement la bonne gouvernance dans les structures de l'Etat.