Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Yapay zekâ teknolojileri, insan unsurunun egemen olduğu pek çok alanı etkisi altına almaya hazırlanmaktadır. Bu alanlar arasında tıp, hukuk, eğitim, mühendislik olduğu gibi ticaret de bulunmaktadır. Yapay zekâ teknolojileri, özellikle şirketler hukukunun geleneksel yapısını kökünden sarsacak yeni bir ticari düzen ve anlayış yaratma yolundadır. Karar alma süreçlerini otomatikleştiren yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin verimliliği ve hızı, şirketlerin bu sistemleri geliştirerek pazarlamalarının yanı sıra bizzat şirket bünyelerine katarak kullanma eğilimi göstermelerine de yol açmaktadır. Bu şekilde kendi kendini besleyen bu döngü, yapay zekâ alanına sermaye yapısı güçlü şirketlerin yönelmesini ve araştırma kapsamının gittikçe genişletilmesini sağlamaktadır. Şirketlerdeki bu yönelim neticesinde, hızla gelişen yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin geleneksel şirket yapılarını etkileyebilme potansiyelinin yükselmesi olgusu, şirketler hukukunun geleceği üzerine bir inceleme yapılması gerekliliğini ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Çalışmamızda şirket yönetiminde yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin kullanımına ve bunun hukuki sonuçlarına odaklanılmakta ve konu dört temel bölüme ayrılarak incelenmektedir. Giriş bölümünde kısaca çalışmanın konusu, önemi, amacı, kapsamı ve sistematiği açıklanmakta, yapay zekâ ve şirket yönetiminin kavramsal çerçevesine yer verilmektedir. Birinci bölümde şirketler hukuku ve yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin etkileşimi incelenmektedir. Bu bölümde yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin ticaret hukuku ve şirketler hukuku ile etkileşimi incelenmekte, dijitalleşmenin şirketler hukukuna etkileri, özellikle şirket yapılarındaki ve menfaat çatışmalarındaki dönüşüm çerçevesinde ele alınmaktadır. İkinci bölümde, şirket yönetiminde yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin kullanılması bir süreç olarak incelenmektedir. Kullanım kararı alınmasından başlamak üzere, şirkete uygun yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin edinimi ve bu teknolojilerinin şirket yönetiminde kullanılma yöntemlerinin araştırıldığı bu bölümde, teknik, hukuki ve ticari başta olmak üzere ilgili beklenti ve belirsizlikler araştırılmaktadır. Üçüncü bölümde şirket yönetiminde yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin kullanılmasının hukuki sonuçları ve hukukun bu dönüşümden nasıl etkileneceği üzerinde durulmaktadır. Son bölümde ise yönetimin geleceği üzerine düşüncelerin yer altığı bir karar ağacı tasarımı içeren interaktif bir bölüme yer verilmektedir. Artificial intelligence technologies are preparing to influence many human-dominated and human-related fields. These fields include medicine, law, education, engineering as well as commerce. Artificial intelligence technologies are on the way to create a new commercial order and understanding that will shake up the traditional structure of corporate law. In particular, the efficiency and speed of artificial intelligence technologies that automate decision-making processes have led companies to tend to use these systems both by developing and marketing them and by incorporating them. In this way, this self-sustaining cycle has led companies with strong capital structures to move towards the field of artificial intelligence, and the scope of research has been gradually expanded. This orientation in companies and the high potential of rapidly developing artificial intelligence technologies to affect traditional company structures have revealed the necessity of conducting an examination on the future of company law. Our study focuses on the use of artificial intelligence technologies in company management and its legal consequences, and the subject is examined under four main sections. In the introduction, the subject, importance, purpose, scope and systematics of the study are briefly explained, and the conceptual framework of artificial intelligence and company management is given. In the first part, the interaction of corporate law and artificial intelligence technologies is examined. In this section, the interaction of artificial intelligence technologies with commercial law and company law is examined, the effects of digitalization on corporate law are discussed, especially within the framework of the transformation in company structures and conflicts of interest. In the second part, the use of artificial intelligence technologies in company management is examined as a process. In this section, where the acquisition of artificial intelligence technologies suitable for the company and the methods of using these technologies in company management are investigated, starting from the decision to use, all technical, legal and commercial expectations and uncertainties are investigated. The third chapter focuses on the legal consequences of the use of artificial intelligence technologies in company management and how the law will be affected by this transformation. In the last part, there is an interactive section that includes a decision tree design with thoughts on the future of management.

A presente dissertação explora o fenómeno dos mercados em linha da perspetiva do direito dos contratos. A estrutura dos mercados em linha é sempre composta por três contratos que formam um triângulo, mas a sua atividade não pode ser reconduzida a um modelo de negócio único, pelo que não é possível retirar conclusões gerais relativas a todos os mercados em linha, sendo necessário agrupá-los por referência a características comuns. O mercado em linha forma uma rede de contratos, o que impede que possamos simplesmente analisar cada contrato separadamente, devendo, pelo contrário, analisá-los no contexto em que se inserem e tendo em conta as dinâmicas presentes. Duas questões principais ocupam este estudo. A primeira diz respeito à qualificação do contrato celebrado entre o fornecedor e o operador do mercado em linha, concluindo-se que não é possível reconduzi-lo a um contrato tipificado no ordenamento jurídico português, mas que a analogia com aspetos de alguns tipos contratuais pode permitir encontrar caminhos quanto ao regime jurídico a aplicar. A segunda é a questão de saber quando é que o operador do mercado em linha é responsável perante o cliente por questões relacionadas com o contrato principal. A resposta a que cheguei é bipartida. O operador do mercado deve ser tratado como parte quando, em resultado da interpretação das declarações negociais, possamos concluir que se apresentou ao cliente como parte no contrato, titular de direitos e obrigações dele emanadas. Ainda que o operador seja considerado terceiro face ao contrato principal, pode ser responsabilizado pelo incumprimento das respetivas obrigações ou deveres acessórios quando, expressa ou tacitamente, a sua atuação transmita ao cliente a ideia, ou este forme justificadamente a convicção, de que, se alguma coisa correr mal no contrato celebrado com o fornecedor, o operador do mercado responde pelas respetivas consequências. Além destas situações mais estruturais, pode haver responsabilidade também pelo incumprimento de deveres legais próprios do operador do mercado. A questão da responsabilidade dos operadores pelo incumprimento do contrato principal em relações de consumo foi recentemente regulada em Portugal, pelo que o estudo não ficaria concluído sem a análise desse regime especial. This dissertation aims to explore the phenomenon of online marketplaces from a contract law perspective. The structure of online marketplaces is composed of three contracts that form a triangle, but their activity cannot be traced back to a single business model, so that it is not possible to draw general conclusions concerning all online marketplaces, but rather it is necessary to group them by reference to common characteristics. The online marketplace forms a network of contracts, which makes it impossible to analyse each contract separately; instead, we need to analyse them in their context and taking into account the dynamics at hand. Two main issues are addressed in this study. The first concerns the qualification of the contract entered into between the supplier and the operator of the online marketplace, concluding that it is not possible to trace it back to a typified contract under the Portuguese legal system, but that the analogy with aspects of some types of contracts may allow solutions regarding the legal regime to be applied. The second is the question of when the operator of the online marketplace is liable towards the customer for issues related to the main contract. The answer I have arrived at is twofold. The marketplace operator is liable as a party when it appears as such, i.e. when the interpretation of the contractual statements leads to the conclusion that the operator has presented itself as a party to the main contract. Even if the marketplace operator is a third party to the main contract, it may be held liable for the breach of its obligations or ancillary duties when, expressly or tacitly, its actions give the customer the idea that if something goes wrong in the contract concluded with the supplier, the market operator is liable for the consequences. Besides these more structural situations, there may also be liability for the breach of proper legal duties. Finally, the question of the operators' liability for the breach of the main contract in consumer relations has recently been regulated in Portugal. The analysis of thisessential regime concludes the dissertation.

Ticari hayatın gerekleri, ticari işletmelerin faaliyetlerini devam ettiren bir organizasyon bütünü olarak devredilebilmesi ihtiyacını doğurmaktadır. Tüzel kişilik tanınmamış ve hukuk süjesi sayılmamış olan ticari işletmeyi ilgilendiren malvarlığının, hukuki işlemlere konu olması ve özellikle devri bakımından özel bir hukuki rejim öngörülmüştür. Bunun için, Türk Ticaret Kanunu'nun 11/3 fıkrasında düzenlenen şekil ve koşullara uyularak, ticari işletmenin devri gerçekleştirilebilir. 1 Temmuz 2012 tarihinde yürürlüğe giren 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu 11. maddesi ile ticari işletmenin devri sözleşmesinin ve de ticari işletmeyi bir tütün halinde konu alan diğer sözleşmelerin yazılı olarak yapılacağı belirtilerek yazılı şekil şartı ilk kez hukukumuza getirilmiştir. Bununla birlikte, yeni Ticaret Kanunumuz, ticari işletmenin devri prosedürünü kolaylaştırmak adına tescilsiz kazanım öngörmekte ve de aktif unsurların devri için genel hükümlerin gerektirdiği kurucu işlemlerin yapılmasına gerek olmadan devrin gerçekleşeceğini düzenlemektedir. Bu düzenlemenin sicile güven ilkesi açısından neticeleri ve doğura bileceği hukuki sakıncalar tezimizde incelenmiştir. The requirements of commercial life may create the need to transfer the commercial enterprises as a whole organization that continues its activities. A special legal regime has been foreseen for assets of business, which is not recognised as a legal entity, to be subject to transactions, particularly to assignment. For this purpose, the transfer of a commercial enterprise is to be carried out in compliance with the forms and conditions set out in article 11/3 of the Turkish Commercial Code. The written form condition for the transfer of the commercial enterprise agreements and the other agreements in relation to the commercial enterprise has firstly regulated under the Article 11 of the Turkish Commercial Code numbered 6102, has entered in to ferce on July 1, 2012. In addition to this, in order to facilitate the transfer of the commercial enterprise procedure, New Commercial Code stipulates the acquisition without registration officially and transfers of the assets without performing the transaction required by the general provision. The results and legal inconveniency of the said regulation with respect to the believe in registration principle will be discussed in our thesis.

Transnational labour law scholarship has emerged over the past three decades. However, relatively limited scholarship has explored the role of actors from emerging market economies and the challenges and opportunities they have brought for achieving decent work in a globalized economy. This thesis addresses the research gap through an in-depth investigation into the role of actors from China in the dynamics of multi-level governance of labour rights in a globalized economy. Building on a multi-level, actor-centred and processual approach, this thesis argues that China and Chinese enterprises are playing a rising role in developing and shaping the dynamics of multi-level governance of labour rights in the global cobalt supply chain. Furthermore, the thesis suggests that actors from China have started challenging some unequal patterns of existing labour governance in the global cobalt supply chain and have demonstrated the potential to form a counterbalancing force to challenge the dominant role of actors from the global North. A multi-level governance framework has recently emerged and rapidly evolved in the global cobalt supply chain to eliminate child labour in the artisanal copper-cobalt mining sector in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This framework is complex, pluralistic, and decentred. A wide range of state and non-state actors are developing various governance initiatives and shaping the dynamics of multi-level governance. Actors from China are playing a rising role in the global cobalt supply chain alongside a few other actors that have also provided proposals from the global South. Over the past decade, Chinese state agencies, nationwide industry associations and mining enterprises have proactively engaged in developing and shaping the multi-level governance framework to address governance deficits on decent work in the global cobalt supply chain. State agencies have developed various regulatory documents to enhance the social dimension of the Chinese regulatory framework for outward foreign direct investment. Nationwide industry associations have further conceptualized the term “corporate social responsibility” and have taken labour rights as key to the social responsibilities of Chinese enterprises operating overseas. Specifically, a Chinese nationwide industry association for the mining industry has developed comprehensive guidelines and initiatives to clarify and operationalize the labour component of social responsibilities in Chinese outward mining investment. The changing dynamics of multi-level governance have played a crucial role in shaping the private labour governance initiatives that Chinese mining enterprises are developing in the global cobalt supply chain. The contributions of this thesis are original, significant, and timely, given the notable research gaps on China and Chinese enterprises’ engagement with the dynamics of multi-level governance of labour rights in a globalized economy and the ongoing development of a multi-level governance framework in the global cobalt supply chain

In the international arena, there is a strong rhetoric against a type of industrial policy measure called local content requirements (LCRs). They are often characterised, especially by developed countries, as protectionist measures. However, under certain circumstances, LCRs can have a central role in a country’s development process. Indeed, both developed and developing countries use them to boost their economies. Despite this developmental aspect of LCRs, WTO (World Trade Organization) rules restrict their use. The WTO Agreement, however, has a development dimension and WTO law is supposed to be read in light of the wider corpus of international law. The right to development, in turn, is a principle rooted in core human rights treaties, is consolidated in several instruments of soft law nature and could potentially play a role in the interpretation of WTO provisions. In this scenario, the thesis investigates if it is possible to further a development-oriented interpretation of WTO rules affecting LCRs so that those measures that incorporate genuine development goals are not considered a violation of WTO rules.

En 1993, quatorze États africains de tradition juridique civiliste fondent l’Organisation pour l’Harmonisation en Afrique du Droit des Affaires (« Ohada »). Elle a pour mission de moderniser et d’unifier le droit des affaires de ses États membres et ce, afin de contribuer au développement économique sur le continent africain et d’y faciliter l’activité des entreprises. Les entreprises faisant des affaires dans les États membres de l’organisation comptent dans leurs rangs des milliers des commerces de petite ou de très petite taille exploités pour nombre de ceux-ci par des femmes. Ils sont essentiels à la distribution quotidienne de biens et de services dans leurs milieux. Pourtant, celles qui les exploitent travaillent souvent dans des conditions précaires.Cette thèse examine l’interaction entre le régime de droit commercial régional que l’Ohada met en place dans ses États membres et l’activité micro-entrepreneuriale féminine au Bénin, au Cameroun et en Côte d’Ivoire. Me fondant sur l’analyse de données recueillies auprès de femmes commerçantes, de hauts-fonctionnaires de l’Ohada, de juristes et de praticiens du droit des affaires dans ces pays, je démontre que cette interaction se caractérise par des conceptions radicalement différentes du droit. À cet effet, je montre que le régime de l’Ohada instaure une version positiviste et formaliste du droit des affaires, laquelle trouve ses fondements et origines dans la pensée européenne « moderne » qui connît son essor depuis le siècle des Lumières. Le droit que développe l’organisation est instrumental. Sa mission première est le développement des affaires via l’attrait d’investissements et d’entreprises d’envergure. Pour atteindre cette mission, l’Ohada met en place un système de droit uniforme, supranational et orienté vers l’extérieur. Ceci se constate à l’analyse des méthodes de réforme qu’emploie l’organisation, des règles et mécanismes qu’elle adopte et des propos de ceux qui participent à formuler et à mettre en œuvre le droit Ohada.En marge du régime de l’Ohada se trouve le droit commercial qui régit l’activité économique des commerçantes comme celles que j’ai rencontrées. Quant à celui-ci, je montre qu’il s’est notamment forgé sur l’enclume des exclusions dont les femmes ont et continuent de faire l’objet de la part du système juridique et économique officiel. Ce droit qui régit l’activité commerciale micro-entrepreneuriale féminine se distingue par son hybridité, son caractère relationnel et son fondement sur une éthique de la bienveillance. Ces attributs et ce fondement apparaissent à l’analyse de pratiques et d’institutions juridiques typiquement employées par les femmes dans le cadre de l’exploitation de leur entreprise. L’une de ces institutions est la tontine, un mécanisme d’épargne et de crédit remplissant également des fonctions d’entraide et de sécurité sociale. Je soutiens que l’Ohada entretient l’exclusion économique, juridique et politique des femmes commerçantes et des petites et micro-entreprises qu’elles exploitent. Ceci découle de la version de la « modernité » juridique qu’elle met en oeuvre, de sa vocation à attirer en priorité des investissements et des entreprises d’envergure, et des procédés qu’elle emploie pour ce faire. Pour favoriser le développement socio-économique en Afrique et y faciliter l’exploitation des entreprises (y compris les petites entreprises), l’Ohada est appelée à pluraliser son approche au droit et à sa réforme. Elle est appelée à reformuler un droit commercial plus inclusif, bienveillant et attentif au contexte et institutions juridiques locales. Cette thèse se veut une proposition en ce sens

The global financial crisis led to the introduction of special resolution regimes for financial institutions. The most prominent innovation of these resolution regimes is the so-called bail-in tool, which allows regulators to recapitalise financial institutions by expropriating shareholders and creditors. This thesis analyses the conditions under which a hypothetical bail-in of a financial institution would constitute a compensable breach of international investment law. It identifies the issues that are most likely to be relevant if a bail-in were to be litigated before an investment arbitration tribunal. The thesis first addresses jurisdictional issues, in particular the question of whether bail-inable instruments can even be considered an investment in procedural terms. The analysis then continues to substantive standards of protection. It deals comprehensively with the question of expropriation and related issues such as compensation, the right to regulate, and causation. It concludes with possible violations of the fair and equitable treatment standard.

Les membres du conseil d'administration, qui sont l'organe représentatif et exécutif de la société anonyme, sont investis de pouvoirs et d'attributions étendus à tous les stades de leur activité (Code de Commerce turc art. 365, art. 374). En cas de perte résultant de la violation de ces obligations, il est inévitable que la responsabilité soit mise en avant. Ceci est principalement une conséquence naturelle de la règle générale de "l'équilibre autorité-responsabilité". Dans ce contexte, l'existence et l'effectivité des actions en responsabilité ont un rôle dissuasif pour que les administrateurs ne manquent pas à leurs obligations. D'autre part, en raison du principe de la responsabilité limitée avec les actifs contre les créanciers de la société anonyme (Code de Commerce turc art. 329/1), la protection des actifs est importante pour empêcher les créanciers de subir des pertes. De plus, la question de la responsabilité revêt une importance particulière au regard des principes de gouvernance d'entreprise. Parce que la comptabilité et la responsabilité sont les éléments clés du principe de gouvernance d'entreprise dans les sociétés anonymes qui sont les acteurs les plus importants de la vie économique d'aujourd'hui. Par conséquent, des réglementations détaillées prises en vertu du Code de Commerce turc concernant les obligations et les responsabilités des membres du conseil d'administration; en outre, les dispositions relatives aux poursuites en responsabilité ont été réglementées de manière plus détaillée et systématique et des changements importants ont également été introduits à cet égard. Dans ce cadre, un régime de responsabilité spéciale a été institué pour les administrateurs en dehors des dispositions de responsabilité générale, tandis que les articles 549 à 552 du Code de Commerce turc réglementent la responsabilité spéciale, l'article 553 et les articles suivants du Code de Commerce turc réglementent les dispositions relatives à la responsabilité générale. Ces articles sont relativement larges et complets par rapport à l'ancien code. Diverses études monographiques ont été réalisées en matière de responsabilité juridique des membres du conseil d'administration et ce sujet a été largement examiné dans les travaux sur le droit des sociétés anonymes. Cependant, l'aspect droit matériel de la responsabilité juridique a été principalement examiné dans la doctrine mais les questions liées aux actions en responsabilité et l'aspect procédurale de l'action ont trouvé une place limitée dans la doctrine. Les expressions similaires sont souvent utilisées concernant la nature du droit d'action des actionnaires et créanciers, mais l'aspect procédurale n'est généralement pas examiné avec une explication détaillée, des analyses et une caractérisation. Cependant, cette question est étroitement liée à des questions importantes telles que la relation entre les demandeurs, la litispendance, le jugement définitif, l'exécution du jugement et les caractéristiques des défenses. Dans notre étude, en raison de l'importance des actions en responsabilité et de l'augmentation du nombre des actions en pratique, nous essayons d'expliquer les caractéristiques de l'action en responsabilité (l'aspect procédural) ainsi que l'aspect du droit matériel. Cependant, notre étude n'est pas une thèse de procédure civile, c'est une thèse de droit matériel et il vise à examiner les questions liées au droit procédural en commençant par la nature de la responsabilité, l'engagement de l'action jusqu'à l'exécution du jugement définitif rendu. En conséquence, le sujet de notre étude est de décrire l'aspect de droit substantiel de l'action en responsabilité et d'examiner les domaines où la responsabilité des membres du conseil d'administration intersecter avec le droit procédural. Donc l'objectif de cette étude est l'aspect de droit substantiel de la responsabilité. Les problèmes procéduraux sont examinés dans cette perspective. La responsabilité civile des membres du conseil d'administration a été examiné conformément à l'article 553 et les dispositions suivantes. L'analyse a été faite pour les personnes qui ont le droit d'action avant la déclaration de faillite, mais pas pour les autres qui ont le droit d'action après la déclaration de faillite (administration de la faillite, créanciers). La responsabilité des membres du conseil d'administration et des dirigeants a été prise en considération. Par ailleurs, la responsabilité résultant de la fondation, les cas particuliers de responsabilité régis par l'article 549 et suivants du Code de Commerce turc, la responsabilité de contrôleur qui est régie par l'article 554 du Code de Commerce turc, l'action particulière en responsabilité régie par l'article 193 du Code de Commerce turc, l'action en responsabilité à l'égard d'un groupe de sociétés régi par l'article 202 et les dispositions suivantes du Code de Commerce turc et la révocation des personnes responsables entre elles selon leurs relations internes (action en révocation) sont exclues du champ de cette étude. Notre étude, préparée dans ce contexte, se compose de cinq grandes parties, dans la première partie, les principes de l'aspect droit matériel de l'action en responsabilité ont été examinés. Dans ce cadre, les réglementations légales antérieures et nouvelles en matière de responsabilité, les innovations apportées par la Code de Commerce turc, la base juridique (la source), le but, l'objet, l'intérêt qu'elle protège, ses éléments, sa relation avec divers actions et institutions et ses caractéristiques sont important. La source de responsabilité est basée sur la relation contractuelle entre les membres du conseil d'administration et la société, et les éléments de responsabilité sont l'illégalité, le dommage, le lien de causalité et la faute. La responsabilité des membres du conseil d'administration appartient à l'organe de gestion, est personnelle et fondée sur la faute. Sur cette note, la présomption de responsabilité a été révoquée et le fardeau de la preuve repose sur le demandeur. Alors que le principe de solidarité différenciée a été inclus dans l'article 557 du Code de Commerce turc, il a été mis l'accent sur l'application des dispositions de relation de causalité ainsi que les articles 51-52 du Code des Obligations turc. En ce qui concerne le devoir de diligence, la méthode de référence indirecte au devoir de diligence de l'employé qui était régie par l'article 320 du précédent Code de Commerce a été abandonnée par l'article 369 du Code de Commerce turc, et le devoir de diligence a acquis l'objectivité par l'adoption de « business judgement rule (agir avec diligence, bonne foi et loyauté en decision de gestion)». En outre, dans l'exposé des motifs de l'article, il a été clairement indiqué que le critère de prudence sont pertinents avec la « business judgement rule» Le devoir de diligence est lié à des éléments d'« illégalité » et de « faute ». Par conséquent, cet article signifie l'objectivation de la faute. De ce fait, la frontière entre les éléments d'illégalité et de faute est devenue encore plus incertaine. La délégation de gestion (art.367 du Code de Commerce turc) est une situation qui a un impact sur la responsabilité, avec une délégation valable il y aurait partage responsabilité primaire - responsabilité de surveillance (art. 553/2 du Code de Commerce turc). La nouvelle règle, régie par l'article 557/2 du Code de Commerce turc qui prévoit qu'une action en justice peut être intentée pour l'ensemble du dommage et qu'il peut être demandé au juge de déterminer l'indemnisation de chaque défendeur dans une même action en justice, est importante pour fixer qu'il n'est pas nécessaire que le demandeur tienne compte du principe de solidarité différenciée, et que ce principe est une règle qui ne s'adresse qu'au juge et à la décision qu'il établira. Dans la deuxième partie, les caractéristiques du droit d'intenter une action en responsabilité, les parties de l'action et les modalités d'exercice du droit d'action sont discutées. La caractéristique du droit d'action qui pourrait être exercé par d'autres personnes que la société est importante. Le résultat est étroitement liée aux questions critiques telles que les défenses qui pourraient être invoquées par les défendeurs, et avec quelles défenses pourraient être invoquées contre quel demandeur, la relation entre les demandeurs, la litispendance, le jugement définitif, l'exécution du jugement. Après une évaluation détaillée, notre opinion est que les actionnaires et les créanciers ont chacun individuellement un droit substantiel d'engager une action en responsabilité. En outre, la manière d'exercer le droit de la demande réglementé par la loi est également importante. Étant donné qu'il n'y a pas de disposition ou de déclaration restrictive dans la loi concernant la manière de demande du dommage de l'entreprise, il est également possible d'appliquer tous les recours disponibles en vertu du droit de la procédure civile, de l'exécution et de la faillite. Il est possible de demander des mesures provisoires. Bien qu'il existe une réglementation générale quant aux parties à l'action en responsabilité dans la loi, il est important d'examiner ce sujet. A cet égard, l'action intentée par l'actionnaire avant la faillite n'est soumise à aucune condition. Le montant (ratio) de l'action (la part) n'est pas important. En ce qui concerne le défendeur, les défendeurs sont comptés dans la loi. A ce propos, il est important de déterminer qui entrera dans le champ d'application du concept de « dirigeants», qui est réglementé pour être responsable aux côtés des membres du conseil d'administration. La position des personnes qui ont le droit d'action peut varier selon les avis sur la caractéristique du droit d'action. A notre avis, il n'y a pas d'obstacle légal au dépôt d'actions en responsabilité distinctes par des personnes ayant droit d'action, et cette situation ne constitue pas une litispendance. Dans la troisième partie de notre étude, les instruments de défense relatifs aux actions en responsabilité et à la question de la preuve sont abordés. Les moyens de défense sont importants en ce qui concerne l'instance pendante, la détermination de l'existence des éléments de responsabilité et le calcul du montant de l'indemnité. Parmi les conditions d'action, en tant que moyens de défense en matière de droit procédural, la décision de l'assemblée générale et l'intérêt à agir revêtent une importance particulière. À notre avis la décision de l'assemblée générale devait être recherchée comme condition d'action. En outre, bien que l'intérêt à agir soit une condition générale d'action, il prend plus d'importance pour le cette étude, car dans les actions en responsabilité l'événement qui constitue une violation de l'interdiction de l'abus de droit (art. 2 Code Civil turc). En outre, l'adoption du principe de solidarité différenciée a accru l'importance des motifs de défense individuels. Les motifs matériels de la défense peuvent être très divers, tels que le fait de ne pas être investi d'un organe de gestion, la libération, la prescription, la forclusion, l'exécution du devoir de diligence et la délégation de pouvoir. De plus, comme dans tous les procès, la question de la preuve est également très importante dans les actions en responsabilité. Cependant, un système de preuve spécial et une méthode de preuve n'ont pas été prévus en termes des actions en responsabilité. Par conséquent, des questions telles que la charge de la preuve, l'objet de la preuve, l'échelle de la preuve et les preuves propres doivent être déterminées en tenant compte des caractéristiques spécifiques de l'action en responsabilité, et cela a été examiné dans ce cadre dans notre étude. Dans le quatrième chapitre, le déroulement du procès, le jugement et l'exécution du jugement sont expliqués. En particulier, l'accent mis sur le lien de causalité et l'acceptation du principe de solidarité différenciée avec de nouvelles dispositions obligent le juge à procéder à un examen précis. Dans ce contexte, des questions telles que l'impossibilité du contrôle d'opportunité, la mise en œuvre du principe de solidarité différenciée et la prise en compte de la situation des responsables, qui ne sont pas parties au procès, sont les aspects originaux de la procédure. L'effet du jugement à la fin de l'action est également un sujet discuté dans la doctrine. À notre avis, le jugement ne constituera pas res iudicata (l'autorité de la chose jugée) pour les autres actions en responsabilité et les actions en révocation. Cependant, il convient de noter que l'effet de l'intervention en cas de dénonciation d'instance et d'intervention accessoire, pourrait être important en termes d'action en révocation, et de fait, il peut avoir un effet plus important que res iudicata. Une autre question importante est celle de savoir qui a le pouvoir d'exécuter le jugement et les possibilités dans cette question. Le point le plus prénant ici est que le droit de réclamation de l'actionnaire (le demandeur) comprend le pouvoir d'exécuter le jugement, mais le paiement perçu au stade de l'exécution doit être versée à la société. Dans le cinquième chapitre, quelques situations particulières liées aux actions en responsabilité sont examinées. Dans ce contexte, il a été analysé que l'effet du recouvrement partiel ou total du dommage sur les autres parties responsables dans le cadre de diverses possibilités, la transaction et le désistement d'action (la validité et caractère obligatoire), l'examen de la libération d'une ou plusieurs des personnes responsables au sens de l'article 166/3 du Code des obligations turc, la pertinence de la révocation dans le cadre de l'action en responsabilité et les opérations collusoires de l'entreprise dans le cadre de l'action en responsabilité. Notre avis a été indiqué en conjonction avec l'analyse des arguments de la doctrine et de la pratique sur ces questions.

This subject matter of this work is the prohibition of competition with the company of members of board of directors in joint stock companies under art. 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. The prohibition of competition is a limitation on the commercial activities and the freedom of competition of a restricted party who has access to information, means or resources due to the legal relationship between parties which grant the restricted party a leverage in competition with the other. The core idea underlying the prohibition of competition is the necessity to protect the party benefiting from this prohibition against competitive activities of the restricted party. The prohibition of competition bans the restricted party from establishing competition with the party benefiting from the prohibition through competitive actions, ultimately from becoming the competitor of the beneficiary. The said competition relationship will occur in the event the services or products serving the same or similar needs are provided to the entirety or part of the same customers or customer group. Board members in joint stock company, having the prevailing right of access to all information and resources of the company leads to the risk that it may use this power for its own or other parties' benefit instead of that of the company. Hence, the prohibition of competition on board members regulated under article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code is one of the concrete examples of the duty of loyalty of a board member towards the company aiming to prevent such usages prioritizing the benefit of the member or of a third person over that of the company. The focal point of this work is the determination of the scope of application and conditions of this prohibition as a whole. The first chapter of this thesis aims to convey the conceptual basis of the prohibition of competition. In this scope, we first assessed the economic and legal basis of competition. Economic competition is the race/competition of two or more market actors in a specific market in order to engage in a transaction with its counterparty in the market through offering better prices, conditions, goods or services in order to be superior from its competitors. However, the intention to supersede its competitors and the efforts for this purpose may result in the misuse of the right to compete or in an act limiting or eliminating the competitive environment. The Republic of Turkey provides for a constitutional protection over a person's right to engage in commercial activities and, although not expressly regulated, right to compete. However, as is the case for all rights and liberties, the right and liberty to compete cannot be exercised without any limitation. Second, the scope of the prohibition of competition is assessed. In this regard, we tried to determine the elements of the prohibition of competition, its definition, and its legal categorization. Moreover, a comparison of the prohibition of competition with the provisions governing unjust competition aiming to establish honest and undisrupted competition as well as with the rules of Competition Law aiming to prevent disruption of competition through restrictive actions is provided in order to specify the prominent characteristics of the prohibition of competition. Third, the attributes of the provisions governing the prohibition of competition are assessed. Provisions governing prohibition of competition which do not relate to the public order but to the internal relations of parties, and which serve the personal benefit of the beneficiary, are not of a peremptory nature. The prohibition of competition, which materially limits the liberty of engaging in commercial activities protected under the constitutional law, is of an exceptional nature and hence the provisions governing the prohibition of competition need to be construed in a limited manner. Fourth, the prohibition of competition can be regulated in the letter of a contract through mutual agreement thereon by its parties, or the legislator occasionally provides for a legal provision governing the prohibition of competition by attributing a special importance to this prohibition with respect to a specific relationship between the parties. Last, in this first chapter, we identify the reflections of this prohibition of competition within the scope of the Law of Obligations, and the Law of Corporations. The second chapter of this work takes into consideration the reasons of regulating a prohibition of competition on board members, and its scope of application regarding the persons concerned. In this context we first broadly assessed the position of the board of directors, board members and affiliated commercial auxiliaries in a company. Then, the legislative provisions respectively of German Law, Swiss Law and Turkish Law governing the board members' prohibition of competition are specified. While in German Law, just as is the case in Turkish law, the prohibition of competition of board members is stipulated in § 88 of the German Stock Corporation Act, the Swiss Law does not regulate this prohibition of competition of board members with a statutory provision, nonetheless, this prohibition is accepted by the scholars. Thereafter, the reason for regulating the prohibition of competition of board members is assessed. In this scope, the duty of loyalty of a board member arises from the legal relationship between the member and the corporation being based on the principle of trust. The member must refrain from conflicting its interests with the interests of the corporation, in other words, from conflict of interests, due to its duty of loyalty. When the member engages in competition with the company, the interests of the company and the board member conflict with each other. The member is in a considerably advantageous position in this conflict compared to the company, due to the information and resources to which it has access thanks to its position within the company. For this reason, the duty of loyalty aiming to prevent the conflict of interest between the company and the member lies at the basis of the board member's prohibition of competition. Lastly, in this chapter, the persons subject to the prohibition of competition pursuant to article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code are identified. In this respect, the members of the board of directors as well as persons to whom management authorities are delegated fall within the scope of the ratione personae of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. The commercial representatives and commercial proxies of a company are prohibited from competition pursuant to the prohibition of competition regarding commercial auxiliaries pursuant to article 553 of the Turkish Code of Obligations. Whereas a shareholder is not subject to the prohibition of competition with the company; this prohibition may only be regulated by a contract subject to the Law of Obligations. Furthermore, when evaluating the prohibition of competition of shareholders, whether the shareholder has a duty of loyalty to the company has been assessed under German Law, Swiss Law and Turkish Law. The third chapter of this work sets forth the scope of application of the prohibition of competition of board members with respect to its subject matter, place, and time. In order for a board member to violate the prohibition of competition with the company, the member must engage in an activity competing with the company. Pursuant to the first paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code, two types of competitive actions of board members are banned. The first type is the member engaging in an action which is a commercial transaction that falls within the scope of the field of activity of the company, on behalf of itself or a third party. Accordingly, all kinds of acts and actions of the member realized on behalf of itself or third parties which fall within the scope of activity of the corporation would constitute the breach of the prohibition. The scope of this prohibition also encompasses joining the managing body of another corporation. Furthermore, depending on the specifics of a concrete case, the same member being an employee of a competitor corporation under a service contract, or providing consultancy services or extending facilities to a competitor, or benefiting from a job opportunity which belonged to the company may also be construed to be within the scope of the prohibition of competition. The second type is the member being engaged as a partner with unlimited liability in a corporation engaging in the same types of commercial activities. In this regard, if a member becomes a partner of an ordinary partnership or a collective corporation, or a partner with unlimited liability of a commandite corporation, which engages in activities that fall within the scope of activities of the joint stock company, the prohibition will be breached. The prohibition of competition of the board member with the company may be lifted by an authorization granted by the general assembly pursuant to article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. This permission to compete to be granted to a board member may be in the form of a prior approval or a later acknowledgement (ratification), in an expressed or implied manner. As a result of the member being permitted to compete, article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code will no longer apply even if the member engages in activities in competition with the company. The prohibition to compete of the board member lasts for the duration of the board membership. Once the membership ends, the parties must conclude an agreement in order to continue the prohibition of competition. The said agreement regarding the prohibition of competition will be subject to form requirements to be valid. Pursuant to the liberty of contract inherent in the Law of Obligations, the parties may freely execute an agreement regarding the prohibition of competition, provided they comply with the provisions in paragraph 2 of article 23 of the Civil Code or article 26 and first paragraph of article 27 of the Turkish Commercial Code. The prohibition to compete of board members is valid as long as they execute the activities of the company, and within the geography where the clientele of the corporation is located. The fourth and last chapter of this work is devoted to the consequences of breach of the prohibition to compete by a board member. If a member of the board of directors violates this prohibition, the consequence of this breach is regulated in the first paragraph of art. 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. Accordingly, the joint stock company is granted with certain elective rights. Such that, primarily the company may request compensation from the member in breach of the prohibition of competition. Second, it may be requested that the transaction is deemed concluded on behalf of the joint stock company, third, that the benefits arising from the agreement the member concludes on behalf of third parties belong to the joint stock company. In its request for compensation, the joint stock company must prove the action of the board member violating the prohibition of competition, that the corporation suffered losses from this activity, and the causal link between this activity and the loss of the company. In its request for the transaction to be deemed concluded on its behalf, the company requests for the economic consequences of the transactions the member concluded in violation of the prohibition of competition on its behalf. In its request for the benefits arising from the agreement, the company requests that benefits arising from the agreement the member concluded on behalf of third parties are left to itself. At this point, we materially benefited from the German doctrine and jurisprudence in explaining the claims requesting that a transaction is deemed concluded on behalf of the company and that the benefits from the transactions are left to the company. These rights granted in the first paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code are not cumulative but elective. Pursuant to the second paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code, the authority to chose one of the elective rights granted to the company belongs to the members of the board of directors, excluding the member having violated the prohibition of competition. The third paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code regulates a dual prescription period of three months and one year. These periods are with respect to the exercise by the company of its elective right to make a claim. The first is the period of three months whose commencement will be determined based on the knowledge by other members that an action subject to the prohibition of competition is realized or that a board member joined another corporation. The second period is the period of one year commencing from the realization of the action violating the prohibition to compete. This one-year period is independent from other members' knowledge that the prohibition to compete has been breached. The corporation may raise other claims against the member violating the prohibition of competition which are not stipulated under article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. Accordingly, the corporation may request that the member violating the prohibition of competition through joining a competing corporation as a partner with unlimited liability or joining the managing body of a competitive corporation resigns from this corporation or managing body. Further, the company may dismiss the member violating the prohibition of competition from board membership. Again, the company may initiate a lawsuit to cease the ongoing violation of the prohibition of competition by a board member, or a lawsuit of preclusion prior to probable breaches which have not yet occurred. In this chapter, lastly, the fourth paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code is assessed. This paragraph regulates that provisions governing liability of the members of the board of directors are reserved. This is a new provision which was not present in the abrogated Turkish Commercial Code no. 6762, newly introduced under the Turkish Commercial Code. In this context, we tried to determine the purpose and characteristics of this provision and concluded this work.

Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures are measures aimed at the protection of human, animal and plant life and health, within World Trade Organization (WTO) Member territories, from the risks associated with the introduction and spread of pests and diseases into such territories through trade. The WTO, through its Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (WTO-SPS), guides the application of sanitary and phytosanitary measures and provides a set of guiding principles, rights and obligations applicable to Member States. Dispute resolution through the processes of the WTO is available to Members on a Member to Member level within a defined scope and on specific terms. Private parties who operate within the SPS chain at a national level, whether involved in import or export or neither, are dependent on solutions to barriers or disputes available to them through national legislation. In the absence of an enabling legal framework to facilitate aspects of trade such as certainty and continuity in standard setting, the basis of measures taken in science, transparency and legal recourse to resolving barriers or disputes arising, private parties are vulnerable to fluctuations in, for example, their country’s disease-free status. Private parties are also vulnerable to losing relevance as trading partners in periods of ongoing SPS events and to the loss of trust that trading partners have in the country’s ability to trade safely. These are matters that affect private parties who do not have legal recourse to the WTO dispute resolution procedures which are well within WTO concern as they are directly related to the purpose of SPS measures, the principles, rights and obligations on which they are based. Given the importance of agriculture and the increasing inseparability of international rights, obligations and principles in a field of WTO law such as SPS, the importance of a national legislative framework in as far as being the translator of such rights, obligations and principles into legally enforceable rights, obligations, principles, processes and procedures is significant. The rights, obligations, and principles of SPS measures apply to all products, processes and procedures that are within the scope of the agreement and may include at least 36 chapters of the harmonised tariff book. It is necessary to consider also that international trade, national trade and the associated rights, obligations, and principles of the WTO-SPS agreement interact with the social, political, and economic realities of the country within the countries to which the agreement applies. Therefore, researching some of the persistent challenges experienced by the red meat industry in South Africa prone to negative trade-related consequences during and after the outbreak of a notifiable disease, provides insight into the perception of the ability of the legislative framework to provide solutions to these consequences. This research applies a mixed methodology approach whereby qualitative research by means of semi-structured interviews was combined with doctrinal legal research and a quantitative content analysis using Rprogramming. The qualitative research focused on the role of legislation and the perspectives of selected actors in the red-meat industry, specifically in reference to the foot-and-mouth-disease (FMD) outbreaks and subsequent loss of disease-free status since 2019. The doctrinal legal analysis and content analysis focused on the SPS-related legislative framework. The combination of these methods provides a multi-perspective analysis of SPS measures as barriers to trade from a South African perspective and contributes to the mixed-methods turn in legal studies. The objective of this research is to identify and explore persistent challenges to the prevention and resolution of barriers or disputes connected to sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures in the South African context. Ultimately, this research recommends potential practical solutions to the identified challenges with specific focus on SPS-related barriers or disputes that are beyond the strict terms of dispute resolution available through the World Trade Organization (WTO).

There is a growing concern over the qualifications and social interactions of investment treaty arbitrators. The characteristics of this class of international adjudicators have significantly evolved over the past few decades. The contemporary arbitration panelist interacts within a broad and complex network of arbitration participants. Their patterns of social behavior both within the community of panelists and within the broader network of actors in arbitration proceedings have fundamentally reshaped the composition, dynamics and culture of the arbitration community. These new forms of relationships and patterns of conduct are new in the context of public international law. These have created unprecedented challenges to the investment treaty arbitration system. New manifestations of attributes and social behavior of panelists demonstrate inadequacies of the existing standards, rules and procedures that govern panelists. This study surveys problematic patterns of social behavior of investment treaty adjudicators and shows how certain instances of social behavior inevitably or potentially jeopardize the very foundations of the system. This research empirically examines the voting behavior of two distinct groups of party-appointed panelists, and the results reveal a relationship between appointments and the decision-making attitude of adjudicators. It further methodically maps the pool of ICSID panelists and answers the question ‘who are ICSID panelists?’ It reviews the evolution of the attributes of ICSID adjudicators, assesses the composition of the ICSID pool, and evaluates the social interactions of this group of investment treaty adjudicators. To address the challenges that investment treaty arbitration faces, a radical and multidimensional shift is occurring in the system. This transformation is directed towards greater control over the qualifications and conduct of adjudicators. These developments reconstruct the composition of the pool of adjudicators and influence how they interact with other actors in investment treaty arbitration proceedings. The ongoing reform progress indicates that the attributes and behavior of future investment treaty adjudicators would likely be different from the characteristics and conduct of the contemporary generation of panelists.

Klasik anlamdaki şirketten çıkarma düzenlemeleri, "haklı sebep" temeline dayanmaktadır. Bu düzenlemelerin en tipik özelliği, düzenlemiş oldukları çıkarma hakkı ile şirketin feshi kurumu arasında bir bağlantıya yer vermiş olmalarıdır. Bu bağlantı, haklı sebebe dayalı çıkarma düzenlemelerinin hizmet ettiği birincil amacı da ortaya koymaktadır: Şirketin devamlılığını sağlamak suretiyle ortaklar arasındaki menfaatler dengesi korumak. Türk hukukuna 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu ve 6362 sayılı Sermaye Piyasası Kanunu ile kazandırılan "squeeze-out" müessesesi ise daha farklı bir kuramsal temele dayanmaktadır. Bu müessese ile, şirkette genellikle %90-95 arasında nitelikli bir pay ve/veya oy oranına ulaşmış olan hâkim pay sahibine, azınlığın paylarını herhangi bir sebep göstermeden iktisap edip, onu şirketten çıkarma hakkı tanınmıştır. Böylece çıkarmanın ekseni, "haklı sebep" olgusundan "hâkimiyet" olgusuna kaymıştır. Kanun koyucuların bu şekilde bir çıkarma hakkını öngörmelerindeki temel sebep ise kurumsal nitelikte bazı amaçları gerçekleştirmek isteyen hâkim konumdaki pay sahiplerine bir imkân sunmaktır. Tezimizde, klasik anlamdaki çıkarma müesseselerinin dayanmış olduğu kuramsal temelden ayrılan "squeeze-out" kurumunun kuramsal temeli, düzenlemenin hangi amaçlarla öngörüldüğü meseleleri ele alınmakta; bu bağlamda, kurumun karşılaştırmalı hukuktaki ne şekilde düzenlendiği, kurumun ortaya çıkardığı sorunlar ve bu sorunların çözümüne yönelik önerilere yer verilmektedir. The classic rules designed for exclusion of a partner has a simple theoretical basis: A/an justified/objective reason (or in other words "good cause"). The most typical feature of these rules is they build a bridge between the exclusion right and the dissolution of the company. This bridge also shows the the primary purpose served by these rules which is to maintain the balance of interests among the partners by ensuring the continuity of the company. In comparison with the classical rules, the "squeeze-out" rules which have been introduced into Turkish law with the Turkish Commercial Code No. 6102 and the Capital Markets Law No. 6362, have a different theoretical basis. The controlling shareholder who has reached a qualified percentage of capital and/or voting rights (usually %90-95), has been granted the right to acquire the minority's shares without asserting any justified reason and exclude him from the company. Thus the idea behind the exclusion has been changed from "good cause" to the "dominance/control". The main reason for designing such an exclusion right is to provide an opportunity to the controlling shareholders trying to achieve institutional objectives in the company. In our thesis, the theoretical basis of the "squeeze-out" rules and the reasons for designing such a new exclusion right will be examined within the framework of other squeeze-out rules in comparative law. Within this context, the most common problems in squeeze-outs and suggestions for solving these problems are analyzed.

Tez çalışmasının amacı, kripto varlıkların ödeme aracı olarak kullanımını dış ticaretin bileşenleri kapsamında değerlendirmek ve kripto varlıkların yurtdışı ödemelerde ve bireysel yatırımlarda kullanılmaları bağlamında, bireylerin tutumlarını etkileyen faktörleri incelemektir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda öncelikli olarak, kripto varlıkların para işlev ve özelliklerine ne ölçüde uyum sağladıkları hususunda tespitlerde bulunulmuştur. Ulusal paralara eşdeğer kılınan stabil fiyatlı kripto varlıkların geleneksel ve modern para işlevlerine uyumlu oldukları yönünde görüş bildirilmiştir. Para özellikleri açısından ele alındığında da "kabul edilebilirlik" ve "sıradanlık" dışındaki para özelliklerine, tüm kripto varlıkların uyum sağladıkları değerlendirilmiştir. Ayrıca kripto varlık birimleri parasal niteliklerine göre tasnif edilerek, değişken fiyatlı, stabil fiyatlı ve finansal ürünlere bağlanan kripto varlıklar olmak üzere, üç kategoriden oluşan bir sınıflandırma geliştirilmiştir. Para işlev ve özellikleri kapsamındaki tespitlerin ardından, önceden belirlenen dış ticaret bileşenlerinin özelinde kripto varlıkların mevcut ve muhtemel kullanım alanları incelenmiştir. Belirlenmiş olan dış ticaret bileşenleri, uluslararası para birimleri, uluslararası bankacılık, uluslararası lojistik, dış ticaret hukuku ve gümrük işlemleridir. Dış ticaret bileşenlerine yönelik değerlendirmelerde kripto varlıkların ödeme aracı olarak kullanımları esas alınmıştır ve değerlendirme sürecinde çalışma kapsamında oluşturulmuş olan kripto varlık sınıflandırmasının kategorileri için de görüşler oluşturulmuştur. Çalışma kapsamında kripto varlıklara yönelik bireysel tutumları irdelemek amacıyla ampirik bir araştırma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma kapsamında UTAUT-2 modelini temel alan bir araştırma modeli oluşturulmuş ve yurtdışı ödemelerde kullanım niyeti ile yatırımda bulunma niyeti olmak üzere, iki farklı bağımlı yapıyı etkileyen unsurlar irdelenmiştir. Yol katsayısı değerine (β) göre yurtdışı ödemelerde kullanım niyetini anlamlı ölçüde etkileyen yapıların önem sırasına göre, "performans beklentisi", "sosyal etki" ve "algılanan risk" adlı boyutlar olduğu bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. Yatırımda bulunma niyetini anlamlı düzeyde etkileyen bileşenler ise sırasıyla; "performans beklentisi", "sosyal etki", "farkındalık" ve "algılanan risktir". Araştırma kapsamında bağımlı ve bağımsız yapılar arasındaki etkileşimi incelemek amacıyla etki büyüklüğü (f²) ve tahmin gücü (q²) değerleri de hesaplanmıştır. Yol katsayısı değerlerine göre modelin bağımlı yapılarını anlamlı düzeyde ve negatif yönde etkileyen "algılanan risk" boyutunun, f² değeri açısından anlamlı bir katkısının olmadığı görülmüştür. Ayrıca yol katsayılarına göre "performans beklentisi" bağımlı yapılar üzerinde en çok etkiye sahipken, etki büyüklüğüne göre en önemli yapı "sosyal etkidir". Bağımsız yapıların tahmin gücü (q²) değerleri de etki büyüklüğü (f²) değerleri ile paralel sonuçlar ortaya koymuştur. Ortaya koyulan ampirik araştırmanın sonucunda, örneklemin yurtdışı ödemelerde ve yatırım kararlarında kripto varlıkları kullanma eğilimleri açısından en önemli etmenlerin "performans beklentisi" ve "sosyal etki" olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. The aim of the thesis study is to evaluate the use of crypto assets as a payment instrument within the scope of the components of foreign trade and to examine the factors affecting the attitudes of individuals in the context of the use of crypto assets in foreign payments and individual investments. For this purpose, first, it was evaluated that to what extent crypto assets are compatible with money functions and features. It was stated that stable priced crypto assets, which are equivalent to national currencies, are compatible with traditional and modern money functions. When considered in terms of money features, it was evaluated that all crypto assets are compatible with money features other than "acceptability" and "ordinariness". In addition, crypto assets were classified according to their monetary characteristics, and a classification was developed consisting of three categories: variable priced, stable priced and crypto assets linked to financial products. After the evaluations within the scope of money functions and features, the current and possible usage areas of crypto assets were examined specifically for the previously determined foreign trade components. The determined foreign trade components are international currencies, international banking, international logistics, foreign trade law and customs procedures. Evaluations for foreign trade components were based on the use of crypto assets as a payment instrument and arguments were formed for the categories of the crypto asset classification created within the scope of the study during the evaluation process. Within the scope of the study, an empirical research was carried out to examine individual attitudes towards crypto assets. A research model based on the UTAUT-2 model was formed and the factors affecting two different dependent structures, namely "intention to use in foreign payments" and "intention to invest", were examined. According to the value of the path coefficient (β), it was found that the structures that significantly affect the intention to use in foreign payments are the dimensions called "performance expectancy", "social impact" and "perceived risk", in order of importance. The components that significantly affect the intention to invest are "performance expectancy", "social impact", "awareness", and "perceived risk", respectively. Effect size (f²) and predictive relevance (q²) values were also calculated to examine the interaction between dependent and independent structures within the scope of the research. It was seen that the "perceived risk" dimension, which affects the dependent structures of the model significantly and negatively according to the path coefficient values, does not have a significant contribution in terms of f² value. In addition, according to the path coefficients, "performance expectancy" has the largest impact on the dependent structures, while the most important structure according to the effect size is "social impact". The predictive relevance (q²) values of the independent structures also showed similar results with the effect size (f²) values. As a result of the empirical research, it was concluded that the most significant factors in terms of the tendency of the participants to use crypto assets in foreign payments and investment decisions are "performance expectancy " and "social impact".

This research deals with the legal responsibility of states to provide climate finance to developing countries in order to facilitate climate mitigation and adaptation. The research demonstrates that the area of climate finance has not escaped globalization, where global actors operating at a level beyond the state (the UNFCCC and several Climate Funds) have increasingly taken over some of the climate finance functions previously performed by states. Against this backdrop, the thesis also examines the role of international bodies in providing climate finance, assesses to what extent these bodies are accountable to affected local stakeholders, and puts forward recommendations to foster increased accountability. The research project employs Global Administrative Law (GAL) as a normative framework for assessing and fostering accountability. This thesis is relevant, first and foremost, as an examination of the extent to which global climate finance is adequate for addressing climate change impacts in developing countries. To this end, it engages in a detailed analysis of the international legal framework for climate change and of the relevant financial instruments. It also engages in a normative evaluation of these instruments using the standards proposed by GAL. In keeping with this, the research gives substance and a better definition to these standards. As such, the thesis has the potential to contribute not only to the literature on climate finance, but also to the literature on GAL. It also sheds light on the relationship between climate finance and GAL, a topic that has been largely neglected in the academic literature so far.

The purpose of this study is to provide a legal analysis of the impact of targeted financial sanctions on letters of credit and demand guarantees. The letter of credit is an important method of payment used in international trade. The demand guarantee plays a significant role as an instrument of security in commercial transactions. In their simplest form both instruments constitute an undertaking by a bank to pay a beneficiary against delivery of certain stipulated documents. Letters of credit and demand guarantees are known to be reliable and provide a considerable measure of certainty and predictability to the underlying transaction. Consequently, they have been described as the “lifeblood of international commerce”. Targeted financial sanctions entail assets freezing and prohibitions to prevent funds or other assets from being made available, directly or indirectly, for the benefit of designated individuals and entities. Endorsed by the United Nations and implemented by the vast majority of jurisdictions around the world, targeted financial sanctions are increasingly being used to combat financial crime, including money laundering, terrorism financing and weapon proliferation financing. Banks play a critical role in financial crime prevention and detection. Hence they have been identified as institutions that must comply with targeted financial sanctions. The relationship between targeted financial sanctions and letters of credit and demand guarantees has generally not been well documented. It is hoped, therefore, that this study will make a meaningful contribution to the jurisprudence on letters of credit and demand guarantees. In investigating the impact of targeted financial sanctions, the study can be categorised into three parts. Part one investigates a bank’s compliance with domestic targeted financial sanctions. The chief findings of the study in this regard are that banks are under a legal obligation to comply with sanctions and, as a result, a bank that refuses to perform its contractual obligations under a letter of credit or demand guarantee may have a defence in law. In South African law the bank can raise the so-called defence of legal impossibility of performance to resist a claim for, or potential litigation in respect of, payment. Part two investigates a bank’s compliance with foreign targeted financial sanctions. Because compliance in this regard has no (legal) basis, the bank may conceivably be sued by the beneficiary for payment on the basis of breach of contract. Part three investigates problematic documentary practices that banks have adopted or conceivably may adopt to manage their sanctions risk exposure. In this regard, attention is given to so-called sanctions clauses and other non-documentary conditions. The issue of unjustified amendments by the beneficiary for the purposes of sanctions evasion is also considered in part three. The general conclusion arrived at is that by interfering with payment, targeted financial sanctions render letters of credit and demand guarantees unreliable, thereby having the effect of reducing their value to international trade and commerce. The author proposes certain recommendations and initiatives aimed at mitigating the impact of targeted financial sanctions on credits and guarantees. Key terms: letters of credit; demand guarantees; financial crime; sanctions evasion; targeted financial sanctions; compliance; banks; due diligence; payment; reimbursement; credits; guarantees.

This thesis explores the regulation of airport charges, which is an important but marginalised topic. It particularly examines how private law instruments can play a role in the regulatory process. Airports used to be subject to traditional regulation, which operates in a command-and-control mode. As the airport industry becomes increasingly complicated, traditional regulation seems problematic. First, the method that is associated with traditional regulation to draw a line between regulated and unregulated airports has downsides. Second, the international regulatory framework on airport charges lacks binding rules. This suggests that traditional regulation is not the best niche for airport charges regulation. Third, good regulation needs independent regulatory bodies, which are hard to achieve in practice.In this context, this thesis argues that a private law approach can serve as a more flexible and effective way to regulate airport charges. There are two instruments under this overarching approach. First, contracts can be adopted to incorporate airport charges regulations. Second, robust corporate governance generates the effect of good regulation. This is an interdisciplinary work that has engaged air law, contract law, corporate law, competition law, and aviation business and management. It also employs the method of case studies. Chapter 4 examines the regulation of airport charges in the UK, Canada, and India. The three case studies demonstrate that private law instruments have been implicitly implemented to different degrees in these countries. These demonstrate the feasibility of applying private ordering in the regulatory process. I also look into the regulation of countries and regions including Australia, Ireland, the EU, and Germany throughout this thesis. This study also examines a specific sector of airport charges, namely, charges for ground-handling services. This sector possesses a unique feature in that it is between aeronautical and non-aeronautical services. A private law approach can also be adopted in the regulation of charges relating to ground-handling services. Additionally, ICAO as an important international organisation governing international air transport can also contribute to a private law approach of airport charges through its soft-law making function. This thesis aims to shed light on a private law approach, as an innovative regulatory mechanism, to airport charges. That said, regulation by this approach and traditional regulation are not contradictory but can cooperate to an extent, depending on how much power one wants to give to private ordering

Avec la résurgence des problèmes environnementaux, le droit international des investissements se retrouve aujourd'hui face à l'urgence de sa propre réadaptation. Et, comme réponse unique à un impératif catégorique, l'équilibre des intérêts émerge en tant qu'un principe général de droit (PGD), de nature souple et autonome, à qui ses diverses fonctions (logique, axiologique, unificatrice et correctrice) confèrent une utilité opérationnelle au sein de l'ordre juridique international, et dont la mise en œuvre en droit international des investissements est l'expression de la dimension évolutive. En tant que principe référentiel, il est consubstantiel au droit international des investissements et vise à faire prévaloir un idéal normatif (le droit de l'équilibre) sur un autre (le droit de la protection). Toutefois, l'aporie de l'équilibre des intérêts est d'être, à la fois, une affirmation du principe de la souveraineté réglementaire et une limitation de celui-ci. Dans un premier temps, sa mise en œuvre se traduit par la prise en compte de l'intérêt général dans le balancier état-investisseur et, dans un second temps, cette exigence ne se concrétise qu'au bout d'un double test de la proportionnalité et du raisonnable. Alors que sa source de régénération par rapport au reste du système est la protection internationale des valeurs fondamentales et socio-environnementales, sa structure de base demeure le couple droit-obligation et s'apparente à une transversalité normative qui combine à la fois la lex lata et la lex ferenda d'une part, la soft law et la hard law d'autre part. Malgré sa fécondité croissante, il est possible de le décrire comme étant la source d'un droit poly-normatif et « open-textured » qui possède à la fois un noyau d'applicabilité, une teneur variable et une juridicité foisonnante. Le profil abrégé de cette construction normative pourrait alors se matérialiser en droit international des investissements par: la prise en compte de l'intérêt général, la responsabilité sociale des entreprises multinationales, la réciprocité par équivalence des droits et obligations des parties, la flexibilité réglementaire et la compatibilité d'avec les autres normes de protection internationales.

International Investment Agreements seek to promote foreign investment whilst protecting foreign investors. Despite the goal of International Investment Agreements being to secure parity between the interests of the host State and the foreign investor, there has been consequential disparity in the protection of the interests of both parties. Notably, the host State is susceptible to disadvantage. This research examines the extent to which International Investment Agreements in Tanzania have facilitated this disparity. In particular, the research evaluates the inclusion of fair and equitable treatment provisions in Tanzania’s International Investment Agreements and the extent to which fair and equitable treatment provisions have in some way facilitated this disparity. The research examines systematically the fair and equitable treatment provisions contained in twenty IIAs signed by Tanzania between 1965 and 2013 (eleven of which are still in force). The research takes a comparative approach in evaluating and contrasting the Tanzanian provisions with other fair and equitable treatment clauses in IIAs signed by India, Morocco and the Netherland. The Tanzanian provisions are vague and non-uniform in comparison. The research is situated in the broader context of national sovereignty and the relationship between Tanzania and its foreign investors under international law. The substance of the analysis centres on foreign investors in the mining sector in Tanzania and the extent to which these investors have sought to take advantage of the fair and equitable treatment clauses in the IIAs in order to pursue their activities to the detriment of local populations. The research evidences the negative impact of their claims that changes in government policy (often aimed at benefiting citizens) amount to unfair treatment of the foreign investor. This has a significant impact on the ability of the government to develop its policies around sustainable development, environmental protection and the guarantee of human rights of the citizens of the host State. The research demonstrates that a clearer and fuller articulation of fair and equitable treatment clauses within Tanzania’s IIAs can act as a corrective to the disparity between the host State and the international investor. This requires that IIAs are drafted to include an exhaustive and full list of the State’s obligations towards the foreign investor so as to limit foreign investor claims against the host State. The impact of not doing so has grave implications for the rights of the citizens of Tanzania and unnecessarily tips the balance of power in favour of the foreign investor and away from the host State. This undermines the ability of the host State to assert its sovereignty within its own borders.

Kurumsal sosyal sorumluluk her ne kadar son yıllarda Türk iş dünyasının radarına girmiş olsa da, şirketler hukukunun doğuşundan beri var olan hem bir tartışma konusu hem de bir temennidir. İşbu tez kapsamında, üzerinde uzlaşmaya varılmış bir tanımı bulunmayan kurumsal sosyal sorumluk kavramının, yıllardır bağlayıcı olmayan hukuk enstrümanları ile düzenlenmesinin bir adım ilerisine geçmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Bu adımın da, kavramın şirketler hukuku mevzuatı çerçevesinde bağlayıcı hukuk kuralı hâline getirilmesi ile mümkün olacağı savunulmaktadır. Araştırma metodolojisinde, yürürlükte olan mevzuat hükümleri analizine yoğunlaşılmış olmasının yanı sıra kavramın tarihsel gelişimi gereği bağlayıcı olmayan hukuk (soft law) düzenlemelerine de yer verilmiştir. Şirketlerin pay sahibi dışında; işçiler, alacaklılar, çevre ve toplum gibi diğer menfaat sahiplerinin de çıkarlarını göz önünde bulunduracak şekilde varlığını devam ettirmesinin hâlihazırdaki Türk hukuk mevzuatı ve özellikle de Türk Ticaret Kanunu hükümleri kapsamında mümkün olmadığı görülmektedir. Bu doğrultuda şirketin kâr elde etme amacının yumuşatılması, diğer menfaat sahiplerinin şirket içindeki konumlarının güçlendirilmesi, yönetim kurulu yapısının değiştirilmesi ve yönetim kurulu üyelerinin özen ve bağlılık yükümlülüklerinin kapsamının yeniden düzenlenmesi ile kurumsal sosyal sorumluluğun şirketler hukuku kapsamında temellendirilebileceği öne sürülmektedir. Although corporate social responsibility has entered the radar of Turkish business world in recent years, it is both a topic of discussion and a wish that has existed since the birth of corporate law. Within the scope of this thesis, it is aimed to go one step further than mentioning the concept of corporate social responsibility, which has no agreed definition, in only non-binding legal instruments for years. It is argued that this step will be possible by making the concept a binding legal rule within the framework of company law legislation. In the research methodology, besides focusing on the analysis of the legislation provisions in force, non-binding law (soft law) regulations due to the historical development of the concept are also included. Within the scope of the current Turkish legislation, especially the provisions of the Turkish Commercial Code, it is seen that it is not possible for companies to continue their existence in a way that takes into account the interests of other stakeholders such as workers, creditors, environment and society other than the shareholders. In this direction, it is claimed that corporate social responsibility can be grounded within the scope of company law by, inter alia, softening the company's aim of making profit, strengthening the positions of other stakeholders within the company, changing the structure of the Board of Directors and reorganizing the scope of Board of Directors' duty of care.