Bibliographie sélective OHADA

A constitutional analysis of a differentiated tax treatment of residents and non-residents in respect of income deriving from immovable property in South Africa', Daniel Baines explores whether South African resident taxpayers' constitutional rights to equality and property are infringed by current laws which tax residents at higher rates than non-residents on rental income and proceeds from the disposal of fixed property. He aptly sets out what the right to equality and property entails and how these relate to taxpayers. He finds that the higher effective tax rates paid by residents violates their constitutional right to equality. The thesis provides valuable insight into a resident's right to equality and property in terms of current tax rates and illustrates how current tax rates are unconstitutional. The recommendations brought forward contribute toward the discussion of how tax rates should be altered in order to ensure that residents' constitutional rights are no longer violated.

The arbitration of internal trust disputes has attracted significant attention in the arbitration and trust law communities in recent years with draft clauses and rules produced by arbitral institutions, several states undertaking legislative reform in order to provide such arbitrations with a statutory basis and numerous scholars as well as practitioners writing articles on the subject. Such enthusiasm is justified on the basis that arbitration has several advantages over litigation, such as confidentiality, international enforceability of judgments, the ability to choose one’s judge and the power to tailor the procedure. Notwithstanding these advantages, trust arbitration has failed to make any great inroad into trust disputes due to the many novel and complex points of legal practice and theory which it entails. For example, although arbitration does not typically involve minors or legally incapable parties’ trusts do, and thus trust arbitration raises numerous due process and human rights concerns. Similarly, court supervision and enforcement of trusts is sometimes considered essential to the very nature of trusts and questions therefore arise concerning the extent to which arbitral tribunals could supplant courts in that regard. Another complication is that trusts are not contracts and questions therefore arise about how to bind individuals to a trust arbitration agreement, particularly as regards beneficiaries who may be unascertained, minor or legally incompetent at the time the trust was created. The aim of this thesis is to analyse and present potential solutions to these complications from an English law perspective, although other common law legal systems will be analysed where relevant

This thesis addresses the problem of individuals’ lack of control over personal data in the digital world. It sheds light on market and regulatory failures that lie behind the status quo and proposes a framework to improve regulatory responses. The two regulatory regimes that are at the core of this thesis are EU data protection regulation, which protects individuals’ fundamental rights over data, and EU competition law, which safeguards the sound functioning of the market and consumers’ economic interests. Despite the existence of these two regulatory regimes, individuals do not have sufficient control over personal data collected by digital firms, whose control over large datasets is a factor contributing to market monopolisation. The thesis argues that one reason for the shortcomings of today’s regulatory framework is that the market failure is composed of a combination of factors, which are currently addressed by the different regimes relatively independently. This dichotomy hinders the development of an effective strategy to tackle the market failure in its entirety. The approach taken in this thesis is that by integrating the two regimes, it might be possible to close the gaps deriving from a narrow perception of their regulatory spaces. Hence, the thesis formulates a holistic approach, encompassing data protection regulation and competition law, designed to increase the effectiveness of the regulatory framework as a whole. Different dimensions of the regimes’ interrelation are analysed, to uncover new ways to harness their complementarity and minimise their inconsistencies and overlaps. The thesis looks at how the regimes can incorporate elements from each other to inform their policies and application of their rules, as well as developing a complementary enforcement strategy. The holistic framework ultimately allows both regimes to better tailor their regulatory responses to the functioning of the digital market and take account of the diverse elements that constitute the market failure they seek to correct.

L'objectif de cette thèse est de réaliser dans le contexte béninois un état des lieux de l'effectivité de la protection des emprunteurs de microcrédit. Pour ce faire, sept principes de protection des emprunteurs ont été identifiés. Notre approche est inscrite dans une perspective semi-inductive de sociologie du droit permettant de combiner l'analyse de contenu des textes de loi à l'analyse d'observations directes et de données empiriques collectées auprès de 18 emprunteurs et de huit chefs d'agence à propos des sept principes de protection des emprunteurs préalablement identifiés. Nos résultats montrent qu'au plan juridique les sept principes de protection des emprunteurs bénéficient d'un encadrement très variable, allant d'un fort encadrement législatif pour le principe de confidentialité à un faible encadrement pour les principes de gestion des plaintes, de développement et distribution appropriés des microcrédits, puis de traitement respectueux et responsable. L'analyse des perceptions des divers acteurs permet de constater que si un fort encadrement législatif ne conduit pas toujours vers une bonne protection des emprunteurs contre les risques, un faible encadrement législatif n'induit pas non plus obligatoirement un faible niveau de protection. Plusieurs écarts entre normes juridiques et pratiques institutionnelles ont été identifiés comme en ce qui concerne la confidentialité des informations personnelles de la clientèle. Il a aussi été possible de repérer quelques innovations pratiques dans le secteur comme la mise en place d'un réseau local d'information sur l'endettement des demandeurs de microcrédit permettant de contourner, non pas sans difficultés l'inexistence d'un Bureau d'information et de crédit pour protéger les emprunteurs contre le surendettement. Au regard des résultats, il importe que des actions concrètes d'éducation, de supervision et d'amélioration de la réglementation soient mises en œuvre pour améliorer la protection des emprunteurs de microcrédit. Au-delà des nécessaires réajustements du cadre réglementaire à travers par exemple l'instauration d'un dispositif de gestion des plaintes, d'aide à l'analyse de la capacité de remboursement des clients, de supervision de la confidentialité des données, l'accent doit être véritablement mis sur le renforcement de la surveillance et la sensibilisation des divers acteurs. Il serait aussi opportun de réfléchir à la mise en place de programmes de microcrédit intégré incluant le microcrédit, l'alphabétisation, la micro-assurance ainsi que la formation à la littératie financière. The objective of this thesis is to carry out the situation of the effectiveness of the protection of microcredit borrowers in the Beninese context. To do this, seven principles of borrower protection have been identified. Considering these principles, our approach is based on a perspective of semi-inductive sociology of law that combines content analysis of legal texts with analysis of direct observations and empirical data collected from 18 borrowers and 8 agency heads. Our results show that, from a legal point of view, the seven principles of borrower protection benefit from a very variable framework, ranging from a solid legislative framework for the principle of confidentiality to a weak framework for the principles of complaint management, the development and appropriate distribution of microcredits, and the respectful and responsible treatment. The analysis of the perceptions of the various actors shows that while a solid legislative framework does not always lead to adequate protection of borrowers against risks, a weak legislative framework does not necessarily induce a low level of protection either. Several gaps between legal standards and institutional practices have been identified, for example, the confidentiality of personal information of clients. It was also possible to identify some practical innovations in sectors like the establishment of a local information network on the debt of microcredit applicants to bypass, not without difficulty, the lack of an Information and Credit Office to protect borrowers against over-indebtedness. Considering the results, it is important that concrete actions of education, supervision and better regulation are implemented to improve the protection of microcredit borrowers. Beyond the necessary readjustments to the regulatory framework through, for example, the introduction of a complaints management system, assistance in analyzing clients' repayment capacity and supervision of data confidentiality, real emphasis must be placed on strengthening monitoring and raising awareness among the various stakeholders. It would also be appropriate to consider the implementation of integrated microcredit programmes including microcredit, microinsurance and financial literacy training.

Le législateur algérien a fait le choix au moment crucial de réguler le secteur de la distribution automobile par une règlementation spéciale, considérée comme un instrument de lutte contre l’anarchie et favorisant la sécurité juridique dans ce secteur. L'objectif poursuivi était le suivant : combattre les dysfonctionnements et les anomalies du marché de la commercialisation des véhicules automobiles neufs et garantir une protection au consommateur qui était totalement livré à lui-même. Les nouvelles conditions prévues par le législateur algérien portent sur les procédures administratives, les conditions d’exercice de l’activité de concessionnaires de véhicules neufs, le service après-vente ainsi que la garantie et les délais de livraison auxquels est soumis le concessionnaire automobile. L'objectif principal de cette étude est d’évaluer cette nouvelle règlementation à travers une approche comparative avec le droit européen et le droit français applicables à la distribution automobile. Il s’agit pour cela d’insister sur les différences, ou encore essayer d’identifier des principes communs à ces systèmes juridiques. Ainsi il serait possible de détecter les lacunes en droit algérien et d’anticiper sur les problèmes que peut causer la nature complexe de la distribution automobile afin de bénéficier des expériences déjà acquises en droit européen et français, notamment en matière de pratiques anticoncurrentielles et d’équilibre contractuel. Dans un contexte de mondialisation et d'intégration régionale, la présente étude vise aussi à contribuer au développement de la relation entre l’Algérie et les pays de l’Union Européenne et particulièrement la France, en apportant une meilleure compréhension du système juridique algérien, à travers l'analyse comparée du contrat de distribution automobile, lequel exige une étude plus approfondie grâce à sa complexité, plus particulièrement en matière de droit des obligations, de la concurrence, et de la propriété intellectuelle. إختار المشرع الجزائري في وقت حاسم تنظيم نشاط توزيع السيارات من خلال نص قانوني خاص ، يعتبر كأداة لمكافحة الفوضى وتعزيز الأمن القانوني في هذا القطاع. كان الهدف من ذلك هو مكافحة الاختلالات والعيوب في سوق بيع السيارات الجديدة وتوفير حماية للمستهلك الذي كان مهملا بالكامل. تتعلق الشروط الجديدة التي حددها المشرع الجزائري بالإجراءات الإدارية، شروط ممارسة نشاط وكلاء المركبات الجديدة، وخدمة ما بعد البيع ، بالإضافة إلى الضمان ومواعيد التسليم التي يخضع لها موزع السيارات. إن الهدف الرئيسي من هذه الدراسة هو تقييم هذا النص القانوني الجديد من خلال منهجية المقارنة مع القانون الأوروبي والقانون الفرنسي المطبق على توزيع السيارات. لأجل هذا يتعلق الأمر بالتأكيد على الاختلافات، أو محاولة تحديد المبادئ المشتركة لهذه النظم القانونية. بالتالي ، سيكون من الممكن اكتشاف الثغرات في القانون الجزائري وتوقع المشاكل التي قد تنجم عن الطبيعة المعقدة لتوزيع السيارات من أجل الاستفادة من الخبرات المكتسبة بالفعل في القانون الأوروبي والفرنسي ، لا سيما فيما يتعلق بالممارسات المنافية للمنافسة و التوازن التعاقدي. في سياق العولمة والاندماج الإقليمي ، تهدف هذه الدراسة أيضًا إلى المساهمة في تطوير العلاقة بين الجزائر ودول الاتحاد الأوروبي وخاصة فرنسا ، من خلال تقديم فهم أفضل للنظام القانوني الجزائري ، عن طريق التحليل المقارن لعقد توزيع السيارات ، والذي يتطلب دراسة أكثر تعمقا بسبب تعقيده، وخاصة فيما يتعلق بقانون الالتزامات والمنافسة والملكية الفكرية. The Algerian legislator made the choice at the crucial moment to regulate the automobile distribution sector by a special regulation, considered as an instrument of fight against lawlessness and promoting legal security in this sector. The objective was to combat malfunctions and anomalies in the market for the sale of new motor vehicles and to provide protection to the consumer who was completely left alone. The new conditions stipulated by the Algerian legislator concern the administrative procedures, the conditions of exercise of the activity of dealers of new vehicles, the after-sales service as well as the guarantee and the delivery times to which the car dealer is subjected. The main objective of this study is to evaluate this new regulation through a comparative approach with European law and French law applicable to car distribution. This involves emphasizing the differences, or trying to identify principles common to these legal systems. Thus it would be possible to detect deficiencies in Algerian law and to anticipate the problems that may be caused by the complex nature of automobile distribution in order to benefit from the experiences already acquired in European and French law, particularly with regard to anti-competitive practices and contractual balance. In a context of globalization and regional integration, this study also aims to contribute to the development of the relationship between Algeria and the countries of the European Union and particularly France, by bringing a better understanding of the Algerian legal system, through the comparative analysis of the automobile distribution contract, which requires a more in-depth study because of its complexity, particularly in terms of the law of obligations, competition, and intellectual property.

This work aims to find a practical solution to the problem that exists between intra-EU Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs) and European Union (EU) law over conflict of jurisdiction issues. Currently, there is a problem as the EU Commission has rendered intra-EU BITs incompatible with EU law. This work argues that the current conflict of jurisdictional problems within investment agreements can be overcome by the creation of an EU investment court. The reliance on this court for the resolution of this conflict, as opposed to private law mechanisms, is important as it is the way forward in handling the conflict of jurisdiction issue at its best. This work argues that an EU investment court will be a panacea to the current problems concerning the conflict of jurisdiction. These problems will be presented through a positivist method where the law is analysed in its current form, highlighting its current weaknesses and resolving these weaknesses by proposing recommendations for such a court through a comparative examination of other international courts that fulfil a similar dispute resolution function, namely the Organisation for the Harmonisation of Business Law in Africa (OHADA) and the Unified Patent Court (UPC) and the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The purpose of this work is manifold. The work will provide an analytical examination of the relationship between EU law and international obligations within intra-EU BITs. It will further explore and assess the viability of a range of alternative solutions to intra EU BITs enforcement within the EU. It will additionally examine the operation of the OHADA, the UPC and the WTO to inform the proposal of an EU investment court. This is important as the outcome of these examinations will support the argument made in this thesis. It will also impact dispute resolution beyond academia by providing a practical solution to alleviate the current challenges with intra-EU BITs. The recommendations thus can inform changes for lex ferenda.

Circular labour migration is steadily gaining prominence the world over, primarily due to the benefits it offers to the migrants, to the sending country, and to the receiving country – the so-called "triple-win" benefits. In order to enhance the benefits of circular labour migration, both the International Labour Organisation and the International Organisation for Migration recommend that adequate instruments of governance should be utilised. From the outset, this thesis recognises bilateral labour arrangements as the ideal instruments for enhancing the potential benefits that circular labour migration offers to the stakeholders involved in the process. As far as could be established, there has been no comprehensive research that seeks to provide insights on how the selected countries in the Southern Africa Development Community (South Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe) could optimise the benefits of circular labour migration for all stakeholders, primarily through the use of bilateral labour arrangements. The need for these insights in Southern Africa is pertinent due to the absence of a contemporary and clear framework regulating circular labour migration in the region. Based on the foregoing, this thesis advances the proposition that the guidelines provided by international law and standards of labour migration, and the best practices in Spain and New Zealand, can provide significant insights on how South Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe can enhance the regulation of circular labour migration to provide optimised benefits for all stakeholders. Proceeding from the above premise, this thesis makes a number of findings. These include the affirmation that bilateral labour arrangements are indeed the key regulatory instruments for promoting the triple-win benefits that circular labour migration offers; that circular labour migration, if managed well, plays an instrumental role in development in both the sending countries and the receiving countries; and that three key areas should be addressed in bilateral labour arrangements in order to effectively promote triple-win benefits. The three key areas that need to be addressed in bilateral labour arrangements in order to enhance the benefits for all stakeholders are linking migration with development, migration governance, and the protection of the rights of migrant workers. This thesis outlines the various principles that are necessary to give effect to these three key areas. This thesis finds that, based on the guidelines provided by international law and standards, it is essential that bilateral labour arrangements, at the minimum, incorporate provisions that facilitate skills training, the return and reintegration of migrants, the transfer of remittances, and the promotion of human resources development. In this regard, this study finds that the bilateral labour arrangements between South Africa and its neighbours, Lesotho and Zimbabwe, fall short of the guidelines provided by international law and standards on labour migration and by the best practices in New Zealand and Spain. The original contribution of this study lies in it being the first study to comprehensively explore the legal measures that South Africa, Lesotho and Zimbabwe could utilise to optimise the regulation of circular labour migration to South Africa as the main receiving country in SADC. This study makes recommendations on how the labour migration legal framework between the three countries can be improved, based on lessons learned from international law and standards on labour migration and best practices from selected countries.

Responsible investment (RI) is the investment strategy that incorporates environmental, social and governance (ESG) factors into the investment decision-making process (Hebb, Hawley, Hoepner, Neher, & Wood, 2015). RI has shifted from what was considered a niche market to become one of the fastest-growing areas of finance in many parts of the world (PRI, 2019b). However, a closer look at the development of RI and adoption rates in countries and regions reveals that RI is not commonly practised in sub-Sahara Africa (except for South Africa). This study explores the critical challenges for RI development in the retirement benefits sector of Kenya and, by engaging with a variety of key stakeholders, proposes how to overcome the identified challenges. It contributes to the literature on challenges for RI in a developing country by offering an in-depth case study of the retirement benefits sector.My study employs qualitative methods to collect and analyse data collected from semi-structured interviews with 22 participants (asset managers, regulators and capital market experts, and a council member of the Association of Retirement Benefits Schemes of Kenya) as well as a collection of published documents by government agencies in Kenya. Also, I analysed 10 annual reports to assess the kind of ESG information that is disclosed by listed companies. My study explores, in particular, how actors in the retirement benefits sector conceptualise RI. It identifies the leading ESG factors in Kenya and draws on the business-case approach to RI to explore whether the participants consider those factors as material risk factors that present both risks and opportunities to the investment decision-making process. Further, my study identifies the specific barriers for RI development and proposes how to overcome them. The findings show that participants define RI using several terminologies. This is consistent with the existing literature. My study finds that all participants consider corporate governance as a material risk factor that can impact the financial returns of a portfolio. However, most of the asset managers do not think that the environmental and social factors can present material risk factors to their investment decision-making process. Although over a third of the asset managers recognise that the environmental and social issues in Kenya present business opportunities to retirement benefits schemes, there is a shortage of well-structured assets in those areas. Further, this study identifies five specific barriers for RI development: diversification challenges; a lack of ESG data; a lack of demand/incentives; short-termism; and the demand for high financial returns and a lack of awareness and expert knowledge of RI practices. My study recommends that the National Treasury of Kenya develops RI policy for the entire finance sector. In addition, the findings support a recommendation for the Capital Markets Authority and the Retirement Benefits Authority to embark on capacity building programmes to educate the actors in the finance sector on RI strategies and to create awareness of the impact of ESG on financial returns in the long run.

This thesis identifies the circumstances under which corporate governance regulation can help gain traction to minimise systemic risk. Systemic risk is the risk that local losses spread through the financial system and badly affect the financial system and the real economy. Excessive risk-taking by financial institutions can contribute to such systemic risk. Prudential regulation and supervision of financial institutions leave corporate decision-makers with room for discretion to increase or decrease systemic risk. The incentives of these decision-makers are not necessarily aligned with minimising systemic risk. The thesis shows that this problem exists across different business models. More specifically, it identifies perverse incentives in the case of systemically important banks, CCPs, mutual funds, and hedge funds. The need for corporate governance regulation therefore lies in the inherent incompleteness of prudential regulation and supervision. Corporate governance regulation can help fill this gap by regulating the environment within which choices are made within these types of institutions. The analysis has three steps. First, it characterises the systemic importance of financial-sector activities carried on outside the context of ‘banks’. The governance literature so far has focused on the ‘systemic externalities’ created by banks. However, our analysis shows that other non-bank SIFIs generate similar systemic externalities with socially harmful consequences. These systemic externalities are not considered by SIFIs when taking business decisions. In a second step, the thesis shows that prudential regulation and supervision are incomplete and leave room for governance regulation to fill in the gaps. The final step shows that a corporate governance framework focused solely on the interests of shareholders will have negative consequences for systemic stability. Given such divergence between the decision-makers’ and society’s interests, corporate governance regulation can complement the traditional prudential framework.

The main rationale of prudential bank regulation and supervision of banks has traditionally been to ensure the safety and soundness of banks and protection of depositors. However, best practice standards in bank supervision acknowledge that it is impossible to completely prevent bank failures. Therefore, it is crucial to have regulatory measures in place to deal with banks that fail. Banks are core players in the financial system as the intermediaries between savers and users of capital. In addition, banks provide critical services to consumers, small and medium-sized businesses, large corporate entities and governments who rely on them to conduct their daily business, both at domestic and international level. Banks also fulfil a sui generis role that sets them apart from other financial institutions that are role players in the financial system because, inter alia, they hold “highly” liquid liabilities in the form of deposits that are repayable on demand; they extend long-term loans that may be difficult to sell or borrow against on short notice; they are the back-up source of liquidity to all other institutions (financial and non-financial); and, are also the transmission belt for monetary policy. Unlike other players in the financial system, banks are vulnerable to loss of public confidence and to liquidity risk. Liquidity risk being the risk that a bank will not have sufficient cash to meet short term obligations and the fact that a "run on the bank" by depositors can result in devastating liquidity drainage. Because banks play a special role in the economy and their failure may have a significant impact on financial stability, they need a special approach when they become insolvent or are likely to become insolvent. The 2008 Global Financial Crisis (“GFC”) demonstrated the importance of special resolution regimes for banks; and the need to balance the interests of shareholders, creditors and depositors, while promoting financial stability objectives. Given the critical role of banks in the economy the need is clear for a special resolution regime for banks that provides a legal framework for regulators that avails to them a suite of resolution tools which they can apply to resolve the bank in an orderly manner; to rescue those parts of the bank that may still be viable and to liquidate those parts that are not whilst avoiding a drain on public funds. In order to deal with bank failures in Zimbabwe, the Banking Act [Chapter 24:20] has provided for the mechanism of curatorship since 2000, as a rescue measure aimed at restoring failing banks to economic viability. Curatorship has over the years been applied with mixed success; consequently, Zimbabwe has undertaken a number of reforms which include the enactment of the Troubled Financial Institutions (Resolution) Act in 2005; and the introduction of the problem bank regime via the Banking Amendment Act of 2015. Throughout these reforms, Zimbabwe has elected to retain curatorship, which was once a standalone process in banking legislation to enable bank rescue; and assimilated it into a broader bank resolution framework. This study seeks to determine whether Zimbabwe’s resolution regime requires to be strengthened and if so, to recommend reforms that will align the resolution regime in Zimbabwe with international best practice. For such purpose it will draw upon the Financial Stability Board’s Key Attributes of Effective Resolution Regime as international best practice benchmark. It will further also consider guidance yielded by a comparative study of the resolution regimes in the United Kingdom and South Africa.

Although extreme poverty has decreased in the last decades, we are a long way from eradicating global poverty. Similarly, the world has seen a considerable decrease in global inequality due to recent developments in emerging economies, but overall inequality between nations has risen in the last decades. International tax law may have a relevant role in improving or worsening global inequality. Extensive research has shown that the present international tax system was designed in a way that tends to benefit high-income economies. However, there has been no significant discussion about whether and how international tax law rules should be changed to address global inequality. The main goal of this thesis is to analyze the existing legitimacy and distributive justice issues that limit the ability of lower-income countries to raise tax revenues and consider what can be done to make the current international tax regime more aligned with global justice principles.The thesis builds on the contemporary literature in international political economy and global distributive justice and puts forth a normative framework for allocating the international tax base among states. First, it analyzes some of the legitimacy deficits of the present international tax system. In contrast to prevailing views about improving legitimacy, it demonstrates the shortcomings of focusing solely on making international tax policymaking processes more inclusive and argues for a greater focus on global distributive justice. It then analyzes the main tax theories that have defined international tax relations to date and demonstrates some of their limitations. The final part of the thesis puts forth normative principles that integrate distributive justice and considers the practical implications of the proposed normative framework for some of the most recent issues discussed in international tax policy

OHADA bölgesindeki yabancı yatırımların yasal korunması bahassederken yasal mekanizmaların varlığı fikrine atıfta bulunur. Yabancı yatırımlarının korunmasının sağlanması Bu Örgüte üye olmayan ülkelerin vatandaşları. Mukayese arama sürecinde Türk hukuku ile anlayışlı olmalıdır. Bu yatırımlar için optimal yasal güvenlik modeli olmalidir çünkü OHADA yasa nispeten yeni ve yapım aşamasındadır. Talking about the legal protection of foreign investments in the OHADA zone inevitably refers to the idea of the existence of legal mechanisms capable of ensuring the protection of investments of economic operators who are nationals of non-member countries of this Organization. The comparison with Turkish law must to be understanding in the process of seeking the model of optimal legal security for these investments, because the OHADA law remains relatively new and under construction.

In recent years, investment arbitration tribunals are increasingly confronted with allegations of corruption, mostly invoked by host States as a defense to investors’ claims. After an affirmative finding of an alleged corrupt act between the investor and a public official of the host State in the establishment or conduct of the investment, tribunals have adopted a binary approach to the issue – if they uphold allegations of corruption, they completely dismiss the investor’s submissions. This binary approach has resulted in an asymmetry of liability for the two parties to a corrupt act (i.e., investors and host States/host State officials), failing to take into account the inherent bilateralism of corruption and the fact that domestic laws and international norms have outlawed both the act of offering and of accepting bribes. In particular, public officials’ free participation in a corrupt act to advance investments is attributable to the host State and requires State responsibility under international law. Moreover, the increasingly prevalent practice of inserting anti-corruption provisions in investment treaties has reinforced this lop-sided feature, as well as offering only weak effectiveness in terms of deterring corruption. After a careful examination of the treatment of corruption issues in investment arbitration and investment treaties, this thesis proposes a paradigm shift from the current asymmetric approach to a more balanced approach. It calls on investment tribunals to take a dual-track approach that investigates both corruption and investors’ claims, and ensures that each party assumes responsibility for its own misconduct. It also proposes that treaty drafters include anti-corruption provisions that impose strong obligations of anti-corruption on both sides of corruption (i.e., investors and host States) rather than merely on a single party to it

The reform of the Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) mechanism has provoked much debate among legal scholars and practitioners. The critiques of ISDS mainly arise from concerns regarding the legitimacy of the mechanism such as the perceived tolerance for the lack of impartiality and consistency. To allay these concerns, there have been proposals to reform ISDS by establishing investment courts with tenured judges and appellate tribunals. However, international adjudication systems like ISDS cannot be fully analogized to domestic courts in common law countries: ISDS falls into a broader international regime where there are neither hierarchical/centralized decision-making and enforcement authorities nor a multilateral investment treaty, and the rules and principles on foreign investment protection are fragmented in around three thousand Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs). Against this backdrop, this thesis argues that, although there is a general agreement among the international community to further legalize international investment law, the process of legalization via the specific avenue of reforming the adjudication mechanism (i.e. ISDS) is subject to (1) the institutional constraint of international investment law, especially the lack of shared understanding among the international community regarding the treatment of foreign investments, and (2) the internal constraints of adjudication as a mode of social ordering. It further cautions that pursuing predictability while disregarding the low level of shared understandings regarding investment protection may cause more legitimacy problems than it solves

جاءت هذه الدراسة للتعرف على أحكام المسؤولية المدنية الناشئة عن مضار التلوث البيئي العابر للحدود، وقد أجابت الدراسة على تساؤلات البحث من حيث طبيعة تلك المسؤولية وكيفية إيجاد حلول للتغلب عليها، كما توصل الباحث من خلال الدراسة إلى عدة نتائج وتوصيات أهمها: ترجع أحكام مسؤولية الدولة عن التلوث البيئي إلى نظريات عديدة يأتي في مقدمتها نظرية الخطأ، وإذا تعذر إثبات الخطأ يمكن الرجوع إلى نظرية المخاطر، إن حداثة المشكلات البيئية وطبيعة مسؤوليتها المعقدة قد أثرتا سلبا القضائية الخاصة بدعوى المسؤولية، إن الضرر البيئي له خصائص معينة تجعله يختلف عن الضرر المنصوص عليه في القواعد العامة للمسؤولية المدنية مايكون غير قابل للإصلاح وأنه ناتج عن التطور التكنولوجي وأنه غير شخصي وغير مباشر، وذلك كونه غالبا على أنه صنف جديد من أصناف الضرر.

"Les centres d’arbitrage maritime." Résumé : Le sujet des centres d'arbitrage maritime concerne le processus de résolution des contentieux maritimes quand leurs parties optent pour soumettre leur différend à des instances d'arbitrage comme voie alternative. Les centres d'arbitrage maritime appliquent le règlement arbitral et ses règles dans le cas où le choix est fait en fonction de la clause compromissoire qui inclut ce choix ainsi que la loi applicable. Lacompétence de cet instance d'arbitrage convenue débute à la date de la soumission de la demande d'arbitrage, afin de lui confier le suivi des procédures d'arbitrage et de tout ce qui touche au litige arbitral et jusqu' à ce que la sentence (décision) arbitrale soit rendue. "Maritime arbitration centers." Summary: The subject of maritime arbitration centers concerns the process of resolving maritime disputes when their parties opt to submit their dispute to the arbitral tribunal as an alternative solution, and maritime arbitration centers apply arbitration regulations and its rules in case where the choice is made according to the arbitration clause which includes this choice as well as applying the law on all disputes. The arbitral tribunal function starts from the date of submitting the arbitration request to it to be entrusted with following up the arbitration procedures and everything related to the arbitration dispute and until the arbitral award is issued. : الملخص يتعلق موضوع مراكز التحكيم البحري بعملية فض المنازعات البحرية التي يختار أطرافها عرض النزاع على هيئات التحكيم كطريق بديل، و مراكز التحكيم البحري تعمل على تطبيق لوائح التحكيم و نظامها التحكيمي في حال وقوع الاختيار عليها وفقا لشرط التحكيم الذي يتضمن هذا الاختيار، إلى جانب القانون الواجب التطبيق على النزاع. و يبدأ اختصاص هذه الهيئة في التحكيم المؤسسي من تاريخ تقديم طلب التحكيم إليها، ليوكل لها متابعة إجراءات التحكيم و كل ما يتعلق بالمنازعة التحكيمية و إلى غاية صدور الحكم التحكيمي.

يعد عقد التأمين مجالا خصبا لتجسيد الالتزامات النابعة من مبدأ حسن النية، والتي تضبط سلوك الطرفين قبل إبرام العقد وأثناء سريانه وتنفيذه، غير أنه بدا واضحا أن عدم الإشارة إلى هذه الالتزامات في نصوص عقد التأمين صراحة فتح المجال لظهور تصرفات منافية لمقتضياته أثناء تكوين العقد وسريانه مما خلق عدم التوازن المعرفي بين طرفيه أدى الى عدم استقرار المعاملات. غير أن هذه الدراسة أظهرت تضمين المشرع لمتطلبات مبدأ حسن النية في المواد القانونية المنظمة لعقد التأمين حيث أن التزام المؤمن له بالنزاهة يتمحور فيما يدلى به من بيانات عن الخطر المؤمن منه لشركة التأمين التي تلتزم بدورها بالوضوح والشفافية فيما تقدمه من معلومات عن خدمة التأمين وما تبذله من تعاون معه طيلة سريان العقد يعزز الثقة المشروعة بينهما، وبالنتيجة يحد من الأخطار ويحقق الهدف من التعاقد ويحافظ على توازن مصالح الطرفين ولهذا يجب النص على متطلبات مبدأ حسن النية بصراحة ضمن المنظومة القانونية للتأمين حتى تتحقق العدالة والمساواة العقدية.

رقابة القضاء على أعمال المحكمين من بين أوجه الرقابة التي أقرتها التشريعات الحديثة وقوانين التحكيم الوطنية و الإتفاقيات الدولية وكذا نظام التحكيم في ظل تطور الثقافة التحكيمية في الوقت الراهن. كما تعد ضمانا وحماية للمصالح وحقوق الأفراد والشركات التجارية من جهة وتُمكن القضاء من السيطرة على تصرفات المحكمين وحماية شخصهم في الدعوى التحكيمية لتحقيق فاعلية نظام التحكيم من جهة ثانية. Le contrôle des actes des arbitres est établi par les législations récentes et par la législation arbitrale nationale, ainsi que par les conventions internationales en la matière. Il participe à l’évolution de la culture arbitrale et constitue une garantie et une protection des intérêts des individus et des sociétés commerciales. Il permet d’avoir une vue sur les travaux des arbitres d’une part, et sur leur protection d’autre part, pour assurer l’efficacité de l’arbitrage. The review of the acts of the arbitrators shall be established by recent laws and national arbitral legislation and international conventions on the subject. It contributes to the evolution of the arbitral culture and constitutes a guarantee and protection of the interests of individuals and commercial company’s .It allows having a view on the work of the arbitrators on the one hand, and on their protection to ensure the effectiveness of arbitration

Les fonctions du juge dans les cinq pays d'Afrique francophone étudiés ayant en partage l'usage du français sont rendues possibles par la reconnaissance d'un statut particulier, lequel permet au juge de trancher, notamment les litiges individuels du travail qui lui sont proposés, et de rendre, plus généralement, des décisions. En pratique, toutefois, certains facteurs rendent pour le moins difficile l'intervention du juge. Quels sont les raisons, les causes d'un tel constat? La réponse à cette question suppose une réflexion à partir d'une analyse approfondie et comparée des législations en vigueur dans les cinq pays étudiés à savoir: le Cameroun, le Congo-RDC, la Guinée, le Mali et le Sénégal. Les systèmes juridiques de ces pays connaissent des points de similarité mais aussi des divergences du fait, notamment, de leurs histoires coloniales. En effet, quand bien même, la transposition du modèle du "juge et de ses fonctions" a su s'imposer et a fait disparaître les juridictions coutumières, elle n'en continue pas moins à poser des difficultés, notamment dans le traitement des litiges individuels du travail. En dépit de caractéristiques supposées "communes", les modes d'organisation et d'administration judiciaires des cinq pays varient fortement. Plus fondamentalement encore, l'approche comparative permet de souligner combien les réalités socioculturelles continuent d'influencer l'orientation et la mise en oeuvre des fonctions du juge, notamment lorsqu'il intervient dans les litiges individuels du travail.

Peut-on vendre des cubes d’air ? La division de la propriété foncière en volumes immobiliers est une invention de la pratique notariale. À l’origine, elle fut utilisée pour contourner l’inaliénabilité du domaine public en permettant à l’État de confier la construction de grands ensembles immobiliers complexes à des promoteurs immobiliers. Le Quartier de la défense à Paris en constitue une illustration probante. Cette technique a rencontré un succès croissant au fil des années dans de nombreuses opérations immobilières de petite comme de grande envergure, tant sur le plan national que régional (Océan Indien). À l’île de La Réunion, elle est notamment utile aux opérations photovoltaïques. Or, ce vif succès contraste avec la pauvreté de la recherche sur la question. Malgré des difficultés théoriques et pratiques notables, aucune étude de fond exhaustive n’a encore été menée sur le « volume immobilier » à proprement parler. Est-il un bien ? Même vide, est-il appropriable et commercialisable, ce indépendamment du sol ? Peut-on le vendre, le louer, le posséder, le prescrire, le donner en garantie ? Ce sont autant de questions, parmi bien d’autres, qui méritent d’être abordées afin d’offrir à cette pratique la sécurité juridique qui lui fait encore si cruellement défaut.