Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Dans la recherche d’un équilibre entre la liberté de navigation et la souveraineté territoriale, le droit de la mer a réparti les compétences entre les États - État côtier, État du port, État du pavillon et État tiers - suivant le zonage des espaces maritimes. Cette délimitation constitue le socle juridique sur lequel reposent les actions de l’État en mer contre la criminalité. L’étude interroge donc la capacité des règles établies à offrir aux États des réponses suffisantes et adaptées pour faire face à ce fléau. Elle montre que leurs compétences normatives et d’exécution sont globalement limitées. Le cadre juridique existant n’a au demeurant d’efficacité qu’en étant renforcé par une action globale. Et pour la consolider, la thèse explore la juridictionnalisation de la lutte contre la criminalité en mer. Cette approche est prometteuse, car la pratique du TIDM se développe et sa capacité à traiter la diversité des situations en mer se confirme progressivement. In seeking a balance between freedom of navigation and territorial sovereignty, maritime law has divided jurisdiction among States – coastal States, port States, flag States and third States – according to the zoning of maritime areas. This delimitation forms the legal basis for State action at sea against crime. The study therefore questions the ability of the established rules to provide states with sufficient and appropriate responses to this scourge. It shows that their normative and enforcement powers are generally limited. The existing legal framework can only be effective if it is reinforced by comprehensive action. To consolidate it, the thesis explores the judicialization of the fight against crime at sea. This approach is promising, as the practice of the ITLOS is developing and its ability to deal with the diversity of situations at sea is gradually being confirmed.

L'Europe a été à l'avant-garde de l'éthique de l'intelligence artificielle (IA), en élaborant des chartes et des principes non contraignants sur l'IA « digne de confiance ». Le terme « digne de confiance » est utilisé par l'Europe pour désigner les systèmes d'IA qui sont « éthiques », « légaux » et « techniquement robustes ». L'Europe a complété ces principes non contraignants par un texte de loi sur l'IA, connu sous le nom de règlement sur l'IA, ou AI Act. Le règlement sur l'IA est l'un des premiers cadres légaux au monde à réglementer les systèmes d'IA dans différents secteurs et cas d'utilisation, en mettant l'accent sur la sécurité et la protection des droits fondamentaux. Pour les questions opérationnelles, le règlement sur l'IA s'appuie principalement sur des normes techniques en cours d'élaboration. L'approche européenne combine donc trois niveaux d'instruments réglementaires : les chartes éthiques de l'IA, le règlement sur l'IA et les normes techniques.L'approche par la normalisation est traditionnelle dans le domaine de la sécurité des produits, mais dans le règlement sur l'IA, les normes sont également censées répondre aux préoccupations en matière de droits fondamentaux. Pour éviter de faire des choix normatifs difficiles, les organismes de normalisation jouent la carte de la sécurité en élaborant des normes qui restent à un niveau élevé. De plus, dans le cadre du règlement sur l'IA, la responsabilité de l'élaboration des normes techniques est déléguée à des organismes de normalisation privés, où les grandes entreprises multinationales sont surreprésentées et exercent une influence considérable. Ces normes sont également généralement payantes, bien que la situation puisse évoluer dans les années à venir après une récente jurisprudence de la Cour de justice de l'Union européenne. Les experts en normalisation sont donc sous pression pour fournir des normes à temps et de bonne qualité. Europe has been at the forefront of Artificial Intelligence (AI) ethics, developing non-binding charters and principles on "trustworthy'' AI. The term "trustworthiness'' is used by Europe to designate AI systems that are "ethical'', "legal'' and "technically robust''. Europe has supplemented these non-binding principles with a binding regulation on AI, known as the AI Act. The AI Act is one of the world's first comprehensive frameworks for regulating AI systems across different industries and use cases, focusing on safety and protection of fundamental rights. The AI Act relies, for operational questions, mostly on technical standards that are in the course of development. The European approach thus combines three layers of regulatory instruments: AI ethics charters, the AI Act and technical standards.The standardisation approach is traditional in product safety, but under the AI Act, standards are also expected to address fundamental rights concerns. To avoid making hard normative choices, standardisation organisations are playing it safe, developing standards which remain at a high-level. Moreover, under the AI Act, the responsibility for developing technical standards is delegated to private standardisation bodies, where large multinational companies are over-represented and hold significant influence. These standards are also often locked behind paywalls, although the situation may evolve in the coming years after a recent case law from the Court of Justice of the European Union. Standardisation experts therefore face pressures to deliver standards on time and of good quality.

L’oeuvre libre, aussi connue sous le nom d’open source, est une création protégée par le droit d’auteur, mais dont l’exploitation est ouverte à tous. Si l’expression reste à ce jour peu connue du grand public, les oeuvres libres sont désormais un incontournable des pratiques quotidiennes, en attestent le succès de l’encyclopédie en ligne Wikipédia et l’attrait croissant pour les logiciels libres tels Linux, OpenOffice ou la plateforme Moodle. Malgré son essor, le phénomène du libre demeure juridiquement peu, voire mal, appréhendé. De surcroît, sa licéité fait régulièrement l’objet de contestations doctrinales, l’oeuvre libre s’inscrivant à rebours des règles traditionnelles du droit français, selon lesquelles les biens sont intangibles, non numériques et réservés à l’usage exclusif de leur titulaire. La finalité de l’étude consiste dès lors à démontrer qu’en dépit de son caractère disruptif, l’oeuvre libre peut en l’état intégrer l’ordre juridique français au moyen d’une analyse contractuelle. The concept of the “free cultural work,” also referred to as open source, designates a creation protected by copyright yet made available for use by all. While the expression remains relatively unfamiliar to the general public, free cultural works have become indispensable in contemporary practice, as illustrated by the success of the online encyclopedia Wikipedia and the growing appeal of free software such as Linux, OpenOffice, and the Moodle platform. Notwithstanding this expansion, the legal phenomenon of free cultural works continues to be only partially, if not inadequately, addressed. Furthermore, its legitimacy is the subject of recurrent doctrinal debate, insofar as the free cultural work stands in contrast to the traditional principles of French law, according to which property is tangible, non-digital, and reserved for the exclusive use of its owner. The purpose of this study is therefore to demonstrate that, despite its disruptive character, the free cultural work may, in its current form, be accommodated within the French legal order through contractual analysis.

This dissertation examines the relationship between banking and society. It contributes to a better understanding of how banking affects society and, in turn on how society shapes banking practices. The first chapter studies the impact of inflation on trust in banks. Chapter two deals with the effect of trust in banks on financial inclusion. The third chapter investigates whether financial inclusion influences life satisfaction. Chapter four delves into how female bank leadership affects firm credit. The final chapter focuses on the influence of bank leaders’ age on sustainable lending. Overall, this dissertation highlights the important role of banks in societal development and the major influence of society in shaping banking practices.

Le droit de propriété est présenté comme un droit absolu. Tout propriétaire ne peut être privé de sa propriété sans son consentement ou hors des cas prévus par la loi. Or c’est justement au titre d’une obligation légale que certains propriétaires sont tenus d’exploiter leur bien. C’est en cela que cet objet d’étude porte sur l’obligation d’exploiter un bien. Il consiste à retracer les manifestations d’une telle obligation en droit privé et d’en analyser les conséquences, particulièrement sur le droit de propriété. Il s’agira, préalablement, de s’attacher à la notion même d’exploitation. Bien qu’il existe plusieurs acceptions de cette notion, seule l’exploitation comme activité sera retenue dans le cadre de cette étude. Ainsi, exploiter renvoie à l’action de tirer profit ou bon parti de quelque chose considéré comme objet d’exploitation. Cette étude s’articule autour d’un double constat. D’une part, l’obligation d’exploiter a pour particularité de concerner une diversité de bien (brevet d’invention, marque, fonds de commerce, fonds rural) et par la même une pluralité de matières (droit des biens, de la propriété intellectuelle ou droit rural). L’obligation d’exploiter est ponctuellement intégrée par le législateur en droit positif. On la retrouve ainsi en droit rural notamment lors de l'exercice du droit de reprise ou du droit de préemption, en droit des baux commerciaux lors de l'exercice du droit au renouvèlement, mais encore en droit de la propriété intellectuelle. Mais parfois, cette même exigence d’exploitation est expressément formulée lorsque le législateur sanctionne un défaut d’exploitation, il en est ainsi en droit des brevets lorsqu’une licence obligatoire s’impose au titulaire du brevet en cas de non-exploitation ou d’abandon d’exploitation depuis plus de trois ans. Outre une obligation légale, l'obligation d'exploiter un bien, peut être d'origine contractuelle et être stipulée dans un contrat sous forme de clause d'exploitation. Une telle obligation d'exploiter peut également être prévue dans le cadre d'une stipulation contractuelle prévoyant la rémunération due par le cessionnaire au cédant sous la forme d'une redevance proportionnelle à l'exploitation. D’autre part, les biens concernés par cette obligation, présentent une caractéristique commune, ils sont tous créateurs de richesse dès lors qu’ils sont exploités. Or, la nature de ces biens justifie la présence d’une telle obligation afin de préserver et maintenir leur valeur et par la même leur propre existence. L’étude de l’obligation d’exploiter un bien, permet de mettre en exergue la nécessaire articulation entre les impératifs juridiques et les considérations d’ordre économique, tel que la préservation du potentiel économique de ces biens conditionnée à leur exploitation. L’intérêt de l’étude menée est d’apporter des éléments de réflexion sur les incidences juridiques de la mise en œuvre de cette obligation sur le droit de propriété, en ce que les prérogatives inhérentes à ce droit peuvent être menacées par cette obligation qui influence sur le droit d’user de la chose à la fois pour le propriétaire mais également pour le simple détenteur. Le titre de propriété lui-même peut être mis en péril. De telles atteintes au droit de propriété se justifient soit par des considérations d’intérêt général, soit par des considérations d’intérêt privé. Des éléments communs caractérisent ces différents biens concernés par cette obligation d'exploiter, notamment celui d'avoir un pouvoir de création de richesse indépendamment des modalités d'exploitation choisies par le propriétaire ou locataire, il conviendra dès lors d’analyser la nature et le régime d’une telle obligation.

Financial technology (Fintech) is a rapidly growing industry, both locally and globally. In various ways, Fintech is undeniably transforming financial services and products in every possible part of the financial sector by changing how people access and use financial services. By using innovative technologies, such as distributed ledger technology and cloud technology, and combining large data sets, including alternative data sets, better products can be provided that can be hyper-personalised for market segments and improve access and participation in respect of financial services. Fintech is solving issues that touch the consumer, through a bottom-up approach, considering the retail consumer as a starting point, in contrast to the common traditional finance evolution from the institutional investors to the retail consumer in a top-to-bottom approach. What is exciting about what Fintech can do for Africa, is that it can move inefficiencies in services and product life cycles to become efficiencies and move the frontiers for already efficient products and services. Fintech, therefore, provides an opportunity to improve the archaic and pave the way for the future. This study focuses mainly on crypto assets to limit its scope. It first examines the Fintech landscape in Africa, more specifically, the activity level in each selected comparative country, namely Mauritius, Kenya, Zambia, Namibia and South Africa, and how the activity benefits or can potentially benefit the economy in the host country and lead to the deepening of financial inclusion. It further examines the regulatory frameworks in those countries. The study examines the regulatory approach taken and the local activity, exploring some of the risks identified in each country, and considers the requirements that regulators chose to implement to mitigate these risks, as well as the current state of regulatory frameworks. Consideration is given as to whether similarities in both the risks and the mitigation requirements exist and how this can be aligned across jurisdictions. Recently, international standard-setting bodies have increased their focus on ensuring the alignment and cooperation of regulatory approaches globally. In light of the call for alignment and increased collaboration through policy recommendations and guidance, and or regulators to provide comprehensive and effective regulatory approaches without stifling innovation, this study considers the theoretical possibility of allowing certain Fintech companies, specifically crypto asset service providers (subject to specified conditions) to operate across jurisdictions with a trans-border licence. This study examines Europe’s Markets in Crypto Assets Regulation, as it was the first of its kind continental-wide framework for crypto assets, offering numerous lessons to be learned from this framework. The Commonwealth Model Law on Virtual Assets is also considered, as it is intended to assist member countries in implementing Virtual Asset and Virtual Asset Service Provider regimes in their respective jurisdictions, as they deem appropriate. Lastly, the study will explore what a theoretical trans-border regulatory framework containing prudential and market conduct requirements could look like and what embedded supervision tools, for instance, through forensic nodes or zero-knowledge proofs, could be utilised to ensure that all the regulators participating as part of a licencing panel receive real-time data and have a full view of the level of compliance with the requirements imposed by the joint framework and can proactively and intrusively act, when needed. The proposed trans-border regulatory framework aims to support crypto asset service providers with multi-jurisdictional strategies in Africa in scaling their operations, with a focus on building Africa as a global Fintech hub. The proposed framework aims to achieve this through a harmonised regulatory framework that simplifies compliance, increases efficiencies, enhances innovation, allows for scalability, and better risk management. In addition to the goal of positioning Africa as a globally recognised Fintech hub, the harmonised framework aims to realise the purported benefits of the technologies utilised by crypto asset service providers, thereby deepening financial inclusion and promoting inclusive economic growth through increased access and participation, as well as lower costs.

La dématérialisation et la numérisation croissantes de notre économie ont élevé les données au rang de matière première indispensable. La valeur des données réside dans leurs exploitations potentielles. C’est pourquoi leurs détenteurs cherchent à maximiser leurs revenus en limitant l’accès. Ce constat souligne les enjeux de gouvernance des données. La problématique de la réservation des données a alors émergé. Le constat est que la propriété intellectuelle ne parvient pas à appréhender pleinement la donnée. Néanmoins, l’analyse du droit positif révèle l’existence de mécanismes du droit commun permettant une réservation des utilités des données, tels que le contrat, la concurrence déloyale et parasitaire et le secret des affaires. Bien que ces mécanismes offrent une réservation, ils ne sont pas exempts de lacunes. Aussi, la question de la propriété des données a émergé et a suscité un vif débat. Cette interrogation a engendré un renouvellement des approches théoriques et pratiques du droit de propriété. Dans une approche prospective, un droit exclusif d’exploitation sur les données a été esquissé sous la forme d’un droit sui generis. Cet exercice de conceptualisation a mis en exergue les difficultés que pourrait entraîner une telle reconnaissance. Par ailleurs, il est impératif de trouver un juste équilibre entre la volonté d’appropriation des données et le droit d’accès des tiers à celles-ci afin d’instaurer un régime de protection à la fois efficace et équitable.

Ouvrier à l’usine, candidat à l’Emission Koh Lanta, livreur de la plateforme numérique de travail TakeEatEasy, mannequin ou encore cadre en télétravail… sont autant de salariés, rassemblés sous l’empire du Code du travail, qui ne se ressemblent pas. Le salariat d’hier n’est sans doute plus celui d’aujourd’hui. Il s’accorde désormais avec les technologies de l’information et de la communication qui contribuent à une certaine autonomie des salariés mais aussi à la création de nouvelles formes d’emploi. Il ne faut pourtant pas en conclure à l’obsolescence de la subordination. Ce critère du contrat de travail mérite certes d’être modifié – pour prendre en compte un pouvoir de direction de l’employeur qui s’invisibilise de plus en plus – mais il a tout de même su faire preuve d’une adaptabilité garantissant sa pérennité. Cette étude propose donc de sécuriser les frontières du salariat par l’étude et l’amendement de son critère de subordination afin de le réconcilier pleinement avec la notion d’autonomie. Ce faisant, il convient de déterminer qui est salarié et qui doit et ne doit pas l’être. Des stratégies sont mises en place pour éviter le salariat, il faut alors permettre au critère de subordination d’être sollicité de façon efficiente pour assurer une exacte requalification. Lorsque des stratégies sont, au contraire, mises en place pour détourner le salariat, cela amène à penser la nécessité d’un socle minimum des droits des travailleurs, s’ajoutant aux statuts existants, sous la forme d’un code général de l’activité professionnelle. A factory worker, a contestant on the television programme Koh Lanta, a delivery driver for the digital labour platform TakeEatEasy, a model, or a remote-working executive — all are employees, gathered within the scope of the Labour Code, yet they bear little resemblance to one another. The salaried employment of yesterday is, without doubt, no longer that of today. It now evolves in conjunction with information and communication technologies, which foster a degree of autonomy among employees while also giving rise to new forms of work. Nevertheless, this evolution should not be taken as signalling the obsolescence of subordination. While this defining criterion of the employment contract certainly merits re-examination — so as to take account of an employer’s managerial authority that increasingly operates in less visible ways — it has nonetheless demonstrated an adaptability ensuring its continued relevance. This study thus seeks to consolidate the boundaries of salaried employment through an analysis and amendment of its subordination criterion, with the aim of fully reconciling it with the notion of autonomy. In doing so, it becomes necessary to determine who qualifies as an employee, and who should — or should not — be regarded as such. As strategies are increasingly devised to circumvent salaried status, the criterion of subordination must be applied effectively to ensure proper reclassification. Conversely, when strategies are used to distort or exploit salaried employment, this calls for the establishment of a minimum foundation of workers’ rights, supplementing existing legal statuses, in the form of a General Code of Professional Activity.

ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (“Constitution”) enshrines the right to equality, emphasising “the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms”. This commitment embodies the principle of substantive equality, which extends beyond mere formal equality by addressing systemic inequities and striving for transformative change. The pursuit of transformative equality is underpinned by two constitutionally mandated mechanisms: affirmative action and the prohibition of unfair discrimination, both direct and indirect. Within this framework, the prohibition of unfair discrimination serves a dual purpose: It establishes a foundation for defending formal equality while simultaneously acting as a transformative tool, particularly in safeguarding against indirect discrimination. In a transformative context, the concept of protection against indirect discrimination specifically is significant as it acknowledges that equal treatment can still perpetuate inequality. The concept has the unique ability to identify hidden barriers and protect against more subtle forms of unfair discrimination, rendering it instrumental in advancing substantive equality and promoting long-term, systemic change. Yet, despite its transformative potential, the application of protection against indirect unfair discrimination in South African employment jurisprudence remains underdeveloped. And even in jurisdictions where the concept has received greater attention (for purposes of this study, the United States of America, Canada and the United Kingdom), it has not significantly advanced substantive workplace transformation. The reasons for this limited success are partly shared across these jurisdictions and partly unique to South Africa. Given the above, the primary objectives of this study are threefold: (i) to explore the protection against indirect discrimination in advancing transformative equality within the South African constitutional framework; (ii) to investigate the reasons for the limited development and application of this concept in South African employment law; and (iii) to assess whether the prohibition of indirect discrimination should be upheld as a distinct legal concept in employment law. These objectives were anchored by the fundamental question guiding the study: what role does the concept stand to play in employment law in SA in future and, if any, to what extent and in what form? The study begins by examining the broader concept of equality – a notion that is both complex and continually evolving. Key questions that are addressed include: What does equality mean? What are the objectives inherent to equality? What values underpin the concept? Following this exploration, the focus shifts to the role of equality within the South African Constitution, specifically the content of the right to equality as provided for in section 9 of the Constitution. This includes an overview of the constitutionally mandated mechanisms for enforcing equality, namely affirmative action and the prohibition of unfair discrimination, with particular attention to protection against indirect forms of unfair discrimination. The study thereafter narrows its focus to the application of the latter concept within South African employment law. It highlights the challenges that have hindered the effective development of the concept, which can be broadly categorised as conceptual and practical obstacles. The South African experience is compared to the development and application of the concept in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, offering a comparative perspective on the concept’s evolution in the aforesaid jurisdictions. The study concludes by presenting suggestions and recommendations on the future role of indirect discrimination within South African anti-discrimination employment law. It also recommends strategies for more effective implementation of the concept.

ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study provides exploratory insight into the social justice mandate of the Commission for Conciliation Mediation and Arbitration (“CCMA”) in the context of labour relations in South Africa. As a vehicle for the advancement of social justice through the efficient resolution of labour disputes, the CCMA is a compelling actor in the pursuit of social justice in South Africa’s labour environment. Social justice as a legislative and policy imperative requires an investment in understanding its conceptual ideals and demands in order to empower those acting in its pursuit with the knowledge they need to fulfil its demands. The CCMA’s most critical functionary, its commissioner, holds the key to unlocking labour justice for many members of the public. One wonders, given the criticality of advancing social justice in labour relations, whether social justice is appropriately understood in order to enable the kind of decision-making that efficiently and consistently addresses the workings of power and inequality as they manifest in employment relationships. This study’s main provocation is to transform the pursuit of social justice (in the South African labour context, at least) from an elusive endeavour to a more tangible, realistic one. It attempts to offer a way of thinking about and applying social justice in the practice of labour dispute resolution in South Africa and the CCMA context. It critically explores the interwoven mechanisms of power, prejudice, and injustice and how these mechanisms work to sustain unequal labour relations. The commissioner’s role is thus a critical one, that involves a deliberate pursuit to recognise, understand and interrupt these movements of power and mitigate the effect of inequality. Any movement towards social justice that does not pay close attention to this matrix of power and prejudice threatens to dilute the transformative potency of social justice. This study identifies and discusses the decisions of commissioners that fall short of the kind of conscientious decision-making required by a mandate of social justice. Discussions in this study also point out significant achievements in centralising social justice principles in decision-making processes at the CCMA, where arbitrators, in reducing injustice and advancing justice in labour relations, show a conscientious consideration and appreciation of historical contexts, power, privilege and disadvantage. Living up to the constitutional imperative to transform society in the way of equality, commissioners ought to develop their agency and be empowered by the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, to disrupt inequality. This study contributes to the understanding and clarification of social justice and its implications for the South African labour environment. It also posits ubuntu as an important consideration in the balancing exercise required to achieve justice.

Le droit des personnes protégées se présente, aujourd’hui, en France, comme un sujet d’actualité de premier rang en occupant un espace considérable dans les tables rondes des conférenciers, chercheurs et juristes français. Le sujet du droit des personnes protégées a toujours été un sujet d’actualité au Koweït. La particularité du système législatif de ce pays, se déclarant dans sa constitution comme étant un pays musulman dont la loi islamique est une des sources principales de sa législation, provient de la combinaison, souvent problématique, entre cette dernière et les deux autres sources majeures que sont la « Common Law » et le droit civil/roman germanique. L’évolution des législations koweïtiennes en vigueur est une nécessité omniprésente qui s’impose à chaque fois que le législateur fait face à l’évolution de la société. Parmi les pays du Golfe, le Koweït a été un des premiers a toujours manifesté sa volonté de suivre l’évolution sociale et économique à l’échelle internationale en s’inspirant de l’exemple occidental dont la France constitue une des figures les plus intéressantes, surtout au niveau législatif. L’intitulé d’un tel travail pourrait être « La protection juridique des majeurs ». Cette thèse vise à comparer les droits français, égyptien et koweïtien. Surtout que les trois droits ne prévoient pas les mêmes garanties, malgré leur affirmation de garantir cette protection. En ce qui concerne le droit français, avec ses multiples sources : droit interne, communautaire et international, il a instauré un système solide et riche, doté de vrais moyens et d’une série d’institutions publiques et privées veillant à garantir la protection juridique des majeurs. Cependant, le système est loin d’être parfait. Des efforts sont toujours déployés à tous les niveaux afin de combler les lacunes persistantes. Le droit koweïtien et le droit égyptien, quant à eux, disposent des systèmes assez récents, dont les sources proviennent majoritairement du droit musulman, du code civil et des conventions internationales.Il sera intéressant de comparer comment les systèmes koweïtien, égyptien et français assurent et garantissent la protection juridique des majeurs. Quelles sont les garanties prévues par les trois législateurs ? Quelles sont les problématiques que vivent les trois sociétés malgré la particularité de chacune, notamment la koweïtienne dont les deux tiers de la population sont des étrangers ?

La thèse propose d’étudier la spécificité des contraventions en s’interrogeant sur les liens qu’elles entretiennent avec les catégories du droit administratif. Ces infractions présentent un contenu et un régime qui les distingue des crimes et délits pour les rapprocher des sanctions administratives et mesures de police administrative. Elles sont notamment définies par voie réglementaire, faiblement soumises aux garanties pénales et dénuées d’exigence d’élément moral. Peu appréhendée par la doctrine en raison de la division disciplinaire entre droit pénal et droit administratif, cette ambivalence pose la question de la nature réelle des contraventions et de leur place au sein de l’ordonnancement juridique. La thèse soutient que les contraventions constituent une catégorie hybride située aux frontières du droit pénal et du droit administratif. Pour rendre compte de leur nature, elle propose de les concevoir comme des infractions relevant du droit pénal de police, soit la portion du droit pénal mise au service de l’efficacité de la police administrative. Ce droit prend appui sur des contraventions, délits et sanctions administratives présentant une certaine unité par leur fonction d’exécution des règlements de police. This thesis examines the specific nature of contraventions, looking at how they relate to the categories of administrative law. The content and regime of these offences distinguish them from crimes and misdemeanors, and bring them closer to administrative sanctions and administrative policing measures. In particular, they are defined by regulation, are not subject to penal guarantees and do not require a moral element. This ambivalence, which is little understood by academic writers because of the disciplinary division between criminal law and administrative law, raises the question of the real nature of contraventions and their place within the legal system. This thesis argues that contraventions constitute a hybrid category situated at the frontiers of criminal law and administrative law. To account for their nature, it proposes to conceive of contraventions as offences under police criminal law, i.e. the portion of criminal law that serves the effectiveness of the administrative police. It is based on contraventions, délits and administrative sanctions that have a certain unity in their function of enforcing police regulations.

As technology continues to advance, more trade is moving online. The increase in digital trade brings with it both opportunities and challenges in the international trade field. The increase in digital trade could for instance result in a spike in digital trade imports which may subsequently cause or threaten to cause serious injury to domestic industries and platforms dealing in like or directly substitutable digital data/content and services. This would necessitate the application of safeguard measures to avert any such serious injury or threat to serious injury caused to the domestic industries and platforms. The procedure for applying safeguard measures to digital trade currently is unclear. The current legal framework on safeguard measures does not apply to digital trade despite increased digital trade over the years. Thus, this study explores the prospects and practical challenges relating to safeguard measures’ application to digital trade with a specific focus on African domestic industries and platforms. While domestic industries and platforms in any part of the world could be affected by surges in digital trade imports, Africa is in a precarious position. Intra-Africa digital trade volumes could be increased and disadvantages of African domestic industries and platforms by surges in digital trade imports could be prevented through regulation and judicious use of safeguard measures. This study established the need to regulate to tap into the potential of digital trade and prevent African industries and platforms from falling behind and from the disadvantage of market dominance by big techs from outside Africa. In conclusion, the study noted legal and institutional gaps in the application of safeguard measures to digital trade. The study has recommended that specific institutions at the global, continental and national levels take necessary actions to build a clear and robust framework for safeguard measures in digital trade.

Cette étude explore les contours et les tensions de l'optimisation fiscale dans un monde globalisé et numérisé, à travers le prisme des groupes de sociétés. En retraçant l'histoire de l'impôt, elle met en lumière les transformations profondes du système fiscal mondial, où les stratégies fiscales transfrontalières se sont progressivement développées, en dehors des prévisions des législations nationales. Bien qu'enraciné dans le principe fondamental de la liberté de choisir la voie fiscale la moins imposée, l'optimisation fiscale a évolué en réponse aux mutations économiques, juridiques et technologiques, donnant lieu à des pratiques parfois controversées qui se situent aux frontières de la légalité et de l'éthique. À l'intersection du droit, de l'économie et de la politique fiscale, l'optimisation fiscale dépasse le simple objectif de réduction de la charge fiscale : elle reflète un processus global où la mobilité des capitaux et des actifs immatériels perturbe les règles fiscales classiques. Bien que souvent conformes à la législation, ces pratiques d'optimisation fiscale dites « agressives » perturbent l'équilibre des systèmes fiscaux mondiaux, contribuant à un phénomène préoccupant : l'érosion de la base d'imposition et le transfert de bénéfices vers des juridictions à faible fiscalité. Cette dérive a mis en évidence les défaillances des systèmes fiscaux nationaux, incapables de suivre le rythme des mutations économiques et de réguler efficacement les pratiques des multinationales. En déconstruisant les mécanismes sous-jacents de l'optimisation fiscale agressive, cette recherche invite à une critique constructive de l'arsenal législatif actuel. Elle souligne l'urgence de repenser les instruments fiscaux dans un contexte où la mobilité du capital et des actifs immatériels redéfinit les règles du jeu économique et de restaurer un équilibre entre les exigences d'efficacité économique des multinationales et la nécessité de garantir une justice fiscale à la hauteur des enjeux mondiaux

L'associé salarié est aujourd'hui une figure répandue dans le paysage juridique, en dépit d'une contradiction évidente : il est à la fois propriétaire du capital et subordonné à la société qui l'emploie. Cette antinomie apparente et les interrogations qui en découlent apparaissent, pourtant, majoritairement passées sous silence. Le cumul des qualités d'associé et de salarié est ainsi admis par principe, notamment depuis l'avènement des dispositifs légaux d'actionnariat salarié.Ce silence nourrit l'opportunité d'une étude approfondie de la figure de l'associé salarié. Une analyse miroir du droit des sociétés et du droit du travail est à même de vérifier la réelle compatibilité de ces qualités, tant au niveau de la licéité du cumul que des règles qui lui sont applicables. La proposition est la suivante : se plonger dans l'analyse chronologique du cumul des qualités d'associé et de salarié, de sa naissance à sa disparition, par une étude combinée du droit du travail et du droit des sociétés.En ressort une compatibilité relative des qualités tenant davantage à l'influence du droit du travail que du droit des sociétés. Ce constat ne doit cependant pas minimiser les influences réciproques des deux branches du droit. Contrairement au postulat qui semble suivi par une majorité d'auteurs, l'associé salarié n'est pas juste un salarié particulier : il est également un associé singulier. The employee shareholder is now a commonplace figure, despite a major contradiction: he is both owner of the capital and subordinate to the company that employs him. This apparent conflict and the questions it raises are largely ignored. The dual status of shareholder and employee is accepted as a matter of principle, particularly since the advent of legal employee share ownership schemes.This silence provides an opportunity for a study of the situation of the employee shareholder. A mirror analysis of company law and labour law is able to study the real compatibility of these qualities, simultaneously of the lawfulness of the combination and the rules applicable to it. The proposal is: to analyse in chronological order the dual status of shareholder and employee, from its inception to its demise, by a combined study of labour law and company law.A relative compatibility of these roles emerges. It is due more to the influence of labour law than company law. However, this observation should not minimise the reciprocal influences of the two branches. Contrary to the assumption that seems to be followed by some authors, the employee shareholder is not just a particular employee: he is also a singular shareholder.

Cette thèse s'intéresse à l'histoire de la clause générale de responsabilité en droit français et à son impact sur les rapports entre les régimes de responsabilité délictuelle et contractuelle. La généralité de la clause entraîne sa nécessaire subsidiarité par rapport aux règles de la responsabilité contractuelle, dans un rapport qui rappelle celui entre le droit commun et le droit spécial. Il s'ensuit que la responsabilité délictuelle doit être exclue du contrat, et que cette exclusion est d'autant plus forte et définitive que l'on se rapproche du cœur du contrat et de la fonction propre de la responsabilité contractuelle, à savoir la satisfaction par équivalent du créancier lésé. Cette subsidiarité est également à l'origine de la présence de la clause générale de responsabilité tout autour du contrat, pour régir les marges du contrat, les situations para-contractuelles. Si la nature de la responsabilité dans ces marges ne sera plus débattue, ses effets devront être tempérés pour s'adapter à la présence du contrat.

This thesis critically analyses Uganda’s bilateral investment treaty (BIT) system to determine its compatibility with sustainable development imperatives and proposes a new model BIT that aligns with Uganda’s evolving development priorities. Recognising the country’s reliance on foreign direct investment (FDI) for economic growth, this study interrogates the extent to which Uganda’s current BITs—many of which were concluded during earlier policymaking eras—expose the country to legal, economic, and regulatory risks. These include susceptibility to investor–state dispute settlement (ISDS) claims, constraints on the host state’s right to regulate, and a lack of provisions promoting environmental, social, and developmental objectives. Through doctrinal and comparative legal analysis, the study traces the historical evolution of international investment law (IIL), critiques the limitations of Uganda’s domestic and treaty-based FDI frameworks, and identifies substantive and structural weaknesses in Uganda’s in-force and model BITs. The analysis also considers international reform efforts and best practices from new-generation investment agreements, including the AfCFTA Protocol on Investment, the Investment Facilitation for Development (IFD) Agreement, and the SADC and EAC Model BITs. Particular attention is paid to the South African BIT reform experience as a comparator for Uganda’s reform journey. The study finds that Uganda’s BIT system is outdated, overly protective of investors, and poorly aligned with its sustainable development goals (SDGs). It recommends terminating unratified and problematic BITs, renegotiating existing ones, and adopting a new model BIT that balances investor protection with Uganda’s regulatory autonomy and sustainable development objectives. To this end, a draft model BIT is proposed as an annex to guide future treaty negotiations and reform Uganda’s investment regime in line with contemporary global standards and regional aspirations.

The purpose of this thesis is to evaluate the impact of the Basel Accords on small indigenous banks in developing countries, with particular concentration on small Zambian banks. The problem statement intends to investigate whether implementing the three Basel Accords is conducive to the growth of small banks in Zambia. The study further aims to determine whether the present approach to legal regulation of small banks in Zambia is appropriate. The methodology is based on desk-bound research and examination of both primary sources and secondary sources of material such as books, journals, and relevant articles. The study is impacted by the dearth of secondary research work and the difficulty of getting information from sources like the Zambian central bank and other information centres. While Basel I and II seem to have stabilised the Zambian financial sector, the Basel III Accord appears to have impacted negatively on many small banks to the extent that they have been forced into merger and acquisition arrangements with larger foreign banks to fund their undercapitalised positions to survive. It also emerges that the Zambian financial system is strongly linked to the international global economy; regionalisation with organisations like SADC and COMESA being the first stages in the process. This situation is likely to introduce increased instability in the Zambian financial sector by making banks more vulnerable to the vagaries of the international financial markets. It is thus recommended that the Zambian central bank should be more proactive in lobbying for better conditions for small banks from the Basel Committee for Banking Supervision and other international financial regulatory bodies; it should also avoid “cutting and pasting” rules from other jurisdictions to avoid possible distortions in the banking sector. It should also encourage further development of primary and secondary markets in low-cost paper and provide small banks with long-term, low-interest loans to support their growth. The Bank of Zambia, the Zambian central bank, should consider establishing a separate Act financial services Act for small banks to better regulate them. The central bank should also seek out non-Basel Accord solutions for small banks including re-examining the positive aspects of the infant-industry argument. Lastly, it should introduce a formal system for classifying banks in Zambia. At the international level, it is suggested that the global standard-setting bodies should undergo radical reforms to ensure that they are in tandem with the problems that banks in developing countries face as well as allow them to have a say in global standard setting. It is recommended that global standard-setting bodies apply simpler rules for smaller banks. The impact of the Basel Accords on small indigenous banks in developing countries and Zambia, in particular, is important because of the role that small banks play in developing economies in growing small and medium-sized businesses that are often ignored by large foreign banks. It is also important that small banks are allowed to grow into large and medium-sized banks to effectively compete against foreign multinational banks. Institutions based on neoliberal ideals appear to only serve Western businesses’ interests despite their call for all countries to create a level playing field. Due to the dearth of empirical research, there are several gaps in the work that may provide opportunities for further research in this important area of the law.

Dijitalleşmenin hız kazandığı ve tüketici davranışlarının dönüşüme uğradığı günümüz e-ticaret ortamında, özellikle Covid-19 pandemisi sonrası çevrimiçi alışverişin yaygınlaşması sürdürülebilir lojistik uygulamalarının önemini artırmıştır. Artan sipariş hacmi, çevresel etkiler, karbon salımı ve teslimat sürelerine ilişkin beklentiler; daha verimli, esnek ve çevre dostu teslimat çözümlerine olan ihtiyacı gündeme getirmiştir. Bu bağlamda ev dışında teslimat gibi alternatif lojistik hizmetler ile sosyal, çevresel ve ekonomik sürdürülebilirlik yaklaşımları, tüketici davranışlarını etkileme potansiyeli taşıyan önemli değişkenler olarak öne çıkmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda tezin amacı, sürdürülebilir tedarik zinciri uygulamaları ile ev dışında teslimat modellerinin, e-memnuniyet, e-sadakat ve ödeme isteği üzerindeki etkilerini tüketiciler üzerinden incelemektir. Araştırma, açıklayıcı sıralı karma yöntem stratejisi ile yürütülmüştür. İlk aşamada 300'ü aşkın tüketiciden anket yoluyla nicel veriler toplanmış, ardından ikinci aşamada 27 katılımcı ile yapılan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler aracılığıyla nitel veriler elde edilmiştir. Nicel veriler yapısal eşitlik modellemesiyle, nitel veriler ise tematik analiz yöntemiyle değerlendirilmiştir. Bulgular, özellikle sosyal ve çevresel sürdürülebilirlik boyutlarının e-memnuniyet üzerinde ve ekonomik ve çevresel sürdürülebilirlik boyutlarının ise e-sadakat üzerinde anlamlı etkiler yarattığı yönündedir. Sürdürülebilirliğin üç boyutu da ödeme istekliliği üzerinde anlamlı ve pozitif bir etki yaratmamıştır. Ekonomik sürdürülebilirlik boyutu ise tüketiciler tarafından doğrudan algılanamadığı için memnuniyet üzerinde anlamlı bir etki göstermemiştir. Ev dışında teslimat uygulamalarının esneklik, zaman tasarrufu ve erişilebilirlik gibi avantajlar sunarak e-memnuniyeti ve ödeme isteğini artırdığını göstermektedir. Son olarak e-memnuniyetin, e-sadakati ve e-sadakatin, ödeme isteğini pozitif yönde anlamlı etkilediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu tez, sürdürülebilir tedarik zinciri yönetimi, ev dışında teslimat ve e-ticarette tüketici memnuniyeti, tüketici sadakati ve ödeme isteğini bütüncül biçimde ele alan özgün bir model sunmaktadır. Sürdürülebilir tedarik zinciri uygulamaları ve ev dışında teslimat hizmetlerinin tüketici davranışları üzerindeki etkilerini açıklamak amacıyla Sosyal Kimlik Teorisi (SIT), Yeşil Tüketici Davranışı Yaklaşımı ve destekleyici olarak Yeniliğin Yayılımı Teorisi (YYT) çerçevesinde şekillenen kuramsal yapı, sürdürülebilir uygulamaların tüketicilerdeki karşılığını açıklamaya yardımcı olmuştur. Ayrıca bu çalışma, Türkiye örneğinde sürdürülebilir teslimat hizmetlerine yönelik farkındalık düzeyini ve bu hizmetlerin e-memnuniyet, e-sadakat ve ödeme davranışları üzerindeki etkilerini analiz ederek hem akademik literatüre hem de pratik lojistik ve pazarlama stratejilerine katkı sunması beklenmektedir. In today's rapidly evolving e-commerce landscape, shaped by accelerated digitalization and shifting consumer behaviors, the widespread adoption of online shopping - particularly in the aftermath of the Covid-19 pandemic - has amplified the significance of sustainable logistics practices. Increasing order volumes, environmental impacts, carbon emissions, and heightened expectations regarding delivery times have underscored the need for more efficient, flexible, and eco-friendly delivery solutions. In this context, out-of-home delivery services and the dimensions of social, environmental, and economic sustainability have emerged as key variables with the potential to influence consumer behavior. Accordingly, the purpose of this dissertation is to examine the effects of sustainable supply chain practices and out-of-home delivery models on e-satisfaction, e-loyalty, and willingness to pay, through the lens of consumer perceptions. The research adopts an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. In the first phase, quantitative data were collected via a survey administered to over 300 consumers; in the second phase, qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews conducted with 27 participants. The quantitative data were analyzed using structural equation modeling, while the qualitative data were evaluated through thematic analysis. The findings indicate that the social and environmental dimensions of sustainability have a significant impact on e-satisfaction, while the economic and environmental dimensions significantly influence e-loyalty. None of the three dimensions of sustainability were found to have a significant and positive effect on willingness to pay. The economic dimension of sustainability did not show a significant effect on satisfaction, likely because it is not directly perceived by consumers. Out-of-home delivery practices were found to enhance e-satisfaction and willingness to pay by offering advantages such as flexibility, time savings, and accessibility. Finally, the results revealed that e-satisfaction has a positive and significant effect on e-loyalty, and e-loyalty, in turn, significantly and positively affects willingness to pay. This study aims to develop an original and integrative model that examines sustainable supply chain management, out-of-home delivery, and key consumer outcomes in e-commerce, namely e-satisfaction, e-loyalty, and willingness to pay. Grounded in the Social Identity Theory (SIT), the Green Consumer Behavior Approach, and supported by the Diffusion of Innovations Theory (DOI), the proposed theoretical framework explains how sustainable supply chain practices and out-of-home delivery services shape consumer behavior. Moreover, by investigating the level of awareness of sustainable delivery services in the Turkish context and analyzing their effects on e-satisfaction, e-loyalty, and payment behavior, this research is expected to provide significant contributions to both academic literature and practical implications for logistics and marketing strategies.

This thesis critically examines a much-debated issue in international law: the legitimacy of the Investor-State Dispute Settlement system (ISDS). The system was initially conceived to provide an alternate dispute resolution mechanism for the protection and promotion of foreign investment. In time, this objective has incited a discussion on the legitimacy of the system as the developed world has started to experience the role of host states. Since then, they have taken the lead in the reform process to achieve a balance between host state's and foreign investors' rights. To this effect, both the European Union (EU) and the Third Way Approaches to International Law (TWAIL) are for centralization of the system arguing its current problems emanate from its ad hoc and decentralized nature. Although both are aimed at system centralization, the paths they take to achieve it clearly differ. The EU seeks a permanent investment court by which ad hoc arbitration would give way to a more centralized framework. However, TWAIL advocates for a return to the pre-ISDS era, where national courts resolve investment disputes between foreign investors and states. The effectiveness of these two reform ideas in addressing the purported legitimacy concerns of the ISDS is critically examined in this thesis using Martti Koskenniemi's legal approach. Ultimately, it asserts that neither proposal is adequate to resolve the legitimacy issue of the system, as legitimacy can only be achieved by strengthening the principle of justice, which is feasible alone through a more decentralized structure.