Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Toute expédition maritime est une nouvelle aventure et cela, les gens de mer en savent quelque chose. Cette idée de nouvelle aventure rend compte de la diversité de risques maritimes que cette recherche s’est proposée de traiter. De nos jours, on assiste à un accroissement des capacités marqué par une tendance d’affrètement des giga porte-conteneurs, des navires et des pétroliers. Cet accroissement des capacités ne va pas sans un accroissement des risques maritimes. Ainsi, la persistance des abordages maritimes, la défectuosité des navires et la pollution accidentelle par les navires ont mis en évidence, au fil des années les lacunes, mais aussi la non observance du cadre juridique régulant le transport maritime. Ces risques de la navigation, aux conséquences parfois catastrophiques, dont la gestion efficace échappe encore aux acteurs et organismes maritimes, sont exacerbés par des menaces de piraterie, de terrorisme, de trafic illicite de migrants, de trafic de stupéfiants et d’armes à feu. Face à cette situation qui ne facilite pas l’exploitation des navires, sinon le transport maritime, nous avons saisi le cadre de cette recherche pour classifier ces risques. Selon qu’ils portent atteinte à la sécurité maritime (les risques classiques de la navigation) ou qu’ils portent atteinte à la sûreté maritime(les menaces maritimes) afin de rendre accessible leur examen, mais aussi lever les nombreuses confusions auxquelles ces deux concepts se prêtent. Lequel examen s’est révélé une étape indispensable pour envisager des alternatives, essentiellement juridiques pour le traitement efficace desdits risques maritimes. Si la vigilance des acteurs maritimes est indispensable pour la gestion efficace (prévention et lutte) des risques liés au transport maritime, le droit en la matière doit suivre, face à des risques en mutation incessante et en pleine extension.

La recherche des solutions pour prévenir ou éradiquer les difficultés de l’entreprise passe par l’articulation de diverses interventions d’acteurs. En ce sens, le droit de l’Organisation pour l’Harmonisation en Afrique du droit des Affaires (OHADA), applicable au Cameroun, a doté le débiteur, les créanciers et les organes judiciaires de nombreuses prérogatives. Cependant, le salarié semble être privé de réelles possibilitésd’anticiper ou d’influencer le processus, alors qu’il est au plus fort degré intéressé par la pérennisation de l’entreprise. Le sentiment d’exclusion du processus pourrait démotiver le salarié et entacher ses performances au sein de l’entreprise ; alors que son intégration dans la conception et la prise des décisions serait susceptible de développer un sentiment de solidarité d’une part avec les dirigeants, d’autre part avec les autres salariés. Ainsi, lorsque l’entreprise connaît des difficultés, le dialogue qui s’ouvre à ceteffet doit rassembler toutes les parties prenantes. Il faudrait fédérer toutes les énergies qui s’activent quotidiennement au service de l’entreprise. La présente recherche entend proposer une approche d’implémentation du dialogue social aussi bien dans la gestion quotidienne de l’entreprise que dans la résolution des crises ; en somme, une réelle implication du salarié dans le processus décisionnel.

This study investigates the impact of conduct which goes on to give rise to a securities lawsuit, and the filing of a securities lawsuit, on the level of accounting conservatism in financial reporting. This study also investigates the moderating influence of corporate governance on the level of accounting conservatism following conduct which goes on to give rise to a securities lawsuit, and the filing of a securities lawsuit. The study uses a sample of 617 privately enforced disclosure-related securities lawsuits against listed US firms, taken under SEC rule 10b-5 of the 1934 Securities Exchange Act, over the period 2002 to 2010. The results of the study indicate that following both the conduct that gives rise to a securities lawsuit, and the filing of a securities lawsuit, firms adopt higher levels of accounting conservatism. However, the study finds no evidence that corporate governance moderates the impact of securities lawsuits on the level of accounting conservatism.

Corporate disclosure has attracted the attention of researchers from the accounting and capital markets. Researchers have been trying to better understand how capital markets respond to corporate disclosures. This study explores the short- and the long- term market effects of corporate disclosures in a continuous disclosure environment. This study aims to find the answers to the following research questions. (1) How market (price/volume) sensitive is the information contained in each disclosure category in a continuous disclosure environment? (2) How quickly is the value-relevant information incorporated into share prices before the annual earnings announcement is released, and how can company announcements promote this timeliness of price discovery? Specifically, this study examines the extent to which the Australian share market reacts to new public information immediately after the information is released, and the impacts of announcement frequency as to different continuous disclosure categories on the timeliness of price discovery (also known as the speed of price discovery). Prior research has mostly concentrated on a single type of information event to examine the information’s market consequences by monthly, weekly or daily data. Instead, by covering all public announcements and using tick (transaction) data to calculate intraday abnormal returns and abnormal trading volumes, this study examines which type of announcement has the largest immediate market responses, and compares the magnitude (with positive/negative signs) of market reactions to different announcement categories on the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX). This study is more attractive under the Australian Continuous Disclosure Regime (CDR) because of the classification system regarding the market-sensitive announcements. Whether or not an announcement is market-sensitive is predetermined by ASX ‘specialist staff’ before the announcement is released on the market. This study investigates how the market interprets the announcement, examining market sensitivity from both the share price and trading volume movements after the announcement is available to the market. In other words, to some extent, the ‘market sensitivity tag’ shows the announcement that the market should react to, and this study reveals the announcement that the market does react to. Focusing on market-sensitive announcements, except for the ASX Query, the significant results show a positive association between announcement categories and intraday Cumulative Abnormal Returns (CARs). Share prices react the most to Progress Reports and to Asset Acquisition & Disposal, and the least to Periodic Reports and Issued Capital. Share price reactions to Distribution Announcements and Other are in the middle. There are at least two possible reasons for the different market reaction magnitudes. One is the information materiality nature: if one type of information is more important to investors than other information, this may cause higher abnormal returns on the market. The other is the information predictability: if there has been a lot of relevant information available in previous days or months, share prices could adjust to the information more smoothly. In terms of the trading volume reactions, intraday Abnormal Trading Volumes (ATVs) are observed after the release of Progress Reports, Asset Acquisition & Disposal, Issued Capital and Periodic Reports. After separating good and bad news subsamples, the results show that Progress Reports and Asset Acquisition & Disposal tend to indicate good signs to the market and cause larger trading volumes. Periodic Reports and Issued Capital could contain either good or bad news, but the trading volumes are driven by bad news. The results also reveal that company size is an important factor. Large companies tend to have relatively small market responses after information is released, which confirms that the larger companies are more stable. This study also evaluates long-term market effects of corporate disclosures by examining the timeliness of price discovery (also known as the speed of price discovery). It is the timeliness with which the full value relevant information is priced over a year before the annual earnings announcement is released. Previous literature has revealed that earnings announcements convey information, because significant stock returns or increased trading volumes are observed around the time that earnings announcements are released. However, it has also been suggested that there are other more timely information sources available that contain essentially similar or even the same value-relevant information. By the time preliminary final reports become available to the market, any potential value-relevant information has been included in the share price. The CDR again provides an attractive environment to examine the impact of corporate disclosures on the timeliness of price discovery, because listed companies have to disclose to the market before any other media sources. This enables an exploration of the relationship between the timeliness and the frequency of continuous disclosures. If the CDR is efficient in keeping investors fully informed, there should be no stock price surprise after the earnings announcement is released. Given the importance of the Preliminary Final Reports to the timeliness metric and the fact that the immediate market reaction tests only cover announcements released during trading hours, this study investigates in depth the Preliminary Final Reports and finds some evidence that companies tend to release bad news after the market closes and/or on Fridays. In terms of the impacts of announcement frequency on the timeliness of price discovery, following the step ‘All announcements – Periodic/Non-periodic announcements – Detailed categories of Non-periodic announcements’, the findings reveal that only earnings-related and cash flow announcements (Periodic Reports, Distribution Announcements and Quarterly Cash Flow Reports) can accelerate the timeliness of price discovery. Unfortunately, the results do not confirm that more announcements on the market could promote the timeliness with which the value-relevant (i.e. earning/income) information is incorporated into share prices. In addition to announcement frequency influences, the price discovery process is faster for companies with better share performance, are larger or have greater profitability. Financial companies have a timelier price discovery process than other companies; the price discovery process of financial companies was affected more by the 2008 – 2010 Global Financial Crisis than that of other companies. This study contributes to the market reaction literature by covering all categories of company announcements and comparing immediate market consequences for each type of announcement, and builds upon the timeliness of the price discovery literature by linking the announcement frequency of each continuous disclosure category to the timeliness with which annual earnings information is incorporated into share prices.

L’objectif global de cette thèse est de montrer, que la spécifié des déterminants de croissance d’entreprise est fonction des environnements d’affaires. L’Afrique étant plurielle et multiple de par sa culture, ses moeurs, ses environnements d’affaires, nous avons opté d’étudier le Bénin. Pour atteindre cet objectif global, un sous-objectif est retenu par article parmi les trois que comporte cette thèse. Dans le premier article, il s’est agi de faire une synthèse globale des déterminants de la croissance des PME en les catégorisant. Dans le deuxième article, nous avons procédé à la confirmation des déterminants pertinents (spécifiques) pour le contexte étudié. Dans le troisième article, nous avons évalué l’effet des déterminants retenus sur la croissance des PME étudiées. Ainsi, une approche par étape est utilisée pour atteindre les objectifs précités. Lors de la première étape, une revue systématique de la littérature a permis de faire le point des déterminants de la croissance des PME ainsi qu’une mise en exergue d’un certain nombre de facteurs émergents à étudier (1er niveau de résultat). À la suite de cette étape, nous avons, sur la base d’une analyse en composante principale, essayé de retenir parmi les facteurs émergents, ceux qui pourraient être qualifiés de déterminants spécifiques (2e niveau de résultat). En dernier lieu, à l’aide de la régression panel, nous avons étudié les effets des déterminants spécifiques retenus sur la croissance des PME de notre échantillon (3e niveau de résultat). Entre autres résultats, cette étude met l’accent sur l’importance de certains déterminants spécifiques à la croissance des PME, tels les recours aux compétences externes, les investissements en recherches et en développement et la responsabilité sociale des entreprises.

Doktora tez konumuz olan imtiyazlı pay sahipleri özel kurulunun temel işlevi imtiyazların korunmasıdır. Bu doğrultuda, imtiyazlı pay sahiplerinin haklarını ihlal edebilecek nitelikte olan genel kurulun anasözleşme değişikliklerinde, yönetim kuruluna sermaye artırımı yetkisi verilmesi kararında ve kayıtlı sermaye sisteminde yönetim kurulunun yaptığı sermaye artırımında özel kurul onayı alınması gerekmektedir. Aksi takdirde alınan genel kurul veya yönetim kurulu kararı uygulanamaz. Özel kurul toplantısının yapılabilmesi bakımından aranan temel şartlardan biri, imtiyazlı pay sahiplerinin haklarını ihlal edebilecek nitelikte bir anasözleşme değişikliği veya yönetim kurulunun sermaye artırımı kararının alınmasıdır. Özel kurul kararının alınmadığı aşamada genel kurul kararı hukuken geçerli, fakat hukuki sonuçlarını doğurması özel kurul onayının varlığına bağlıdır. The basic function of the special committee of preference shareholders is to protect the preferences. In this respect, Art. 454 of the Turkish Commercial Code (TCC) regulates the approval of special committee for the amendments to the articles of association of the general assembly, which are in the nature of violating the rights of the preferred shareholders, authorization for capital increase for the board of directors and the capital increase in the registered capital system. Otherwise, the decision of the general assembly or board of directors cannot be applied. One of the basic conditions sought in order to be able to hold the special board meeting is to adopt an amendment in the articles of association or the capital increase decision of the board of directors. At the stage where the decision of the special board is not taken, the decision of the general assembly is legally valid but its legal consequences are subject to the approval of the special committee.

With citizens’ movements mediated by many technologies that aid our navigation the potential for omnipresent surveillance may potentially institute fundamental changes to the human condition. Locational privacy is pivotal in developing inter-personal associations and relational ties with others and its function is therefore complex, rather than solely affording a degree of independence from the observations made by others. In this respect, a more nuanced understanding of the utility of location data is required; the current hierarchy that delineates personal data from special categories of personal data does not adequately appreciate the capacity for location data to act as a proxy for other sensitive personal data. Furthermore, the binary distinction that reflects the conceptualisation of the right to privacy as a negative right, with related concepts such as identity and personality formation viewed as positive constructs, is increasingly difficult a notion to preserve. The classification and terminology of technologies can illustrate how terms and legal metaphors are developed and applied so as to bridge gaps in applying existing context and precedent. Though the designation ‘location data’ once constituted a reasonable accommodation in nomenclature as an intelligible and easily comprehensible term, even while constituting a significant oversimplification of the data it represented, technological advances have rendered the term increasingly problematic. This study asks whether the existing legal framework at the regional level in Europe is apt to provide sufficiently cogent and coherent regulation given recent developments in technologies. The review analyses the risks associated with this predilection in data processing activities that allows for the identification of ever more intimate and nuanced details of a citizen’s life, behaviours and convictions through the analysis of their location data; in turn, it shall discern the necessity of considering the resulting impacts on citizens’ fundamental rights to privacy and personal data protection.

Dans un contexte économique diversifié, complexe et instable, un modèle de gestion de la production et d’organisation du travail mobilisé par la quête de flexibilité est recherché par les entreprises. Cellesci choisissent d’externaliser des activités de production, des activités périphériques ou de recrutement, ce qui engendre la création de deux grandes catégories de travailleurs : les travailleurs internes, directement engagés par l’entreprise et les travailleurs externes, provenant d’une agence ou travaillant pour une entreprise sous-traitante. L’analyse de ces formes d’externalisation, se traduisant par une reconfiguration de la relation d’emploi, invite entre autres à s’interroger sur la définition de celle-ci, sur les conditions de travail et d’emploi qui sont offertes aux travailleurs externalisés ainsi que sur la manière dont ils doivent composer avec la gestion de l’insécurité et du risque. Cette recherche se veut donc une analyse comparée de l’impact de diverses configurations de l’externalisation sur les conditions de travail et d’emploi et sur la relation d’emploi. Plus précisément, elle cherche à savoir en quoi l’externalisation affecte les conditions de travail et d’emploi et elle s’attarde à identifier comment l’externalisation transforme la relation d’emploi. Afin de répondre à ces interrogations, cette recherche s’appuie sur une étude de cas multiple (N=9) menée dans le secteur agroalimentaire et plus précisément dans le segment transformation de la filière de la volaille, une filière qui recourt à diverses configurations de l’externalisation et qui est organisée en chaîne de valeur. La stratégie de collecte des données mobilise cinq sources d’informations (documentation, visite d’une usine, entretiens semi-dirigés, conventions collectives, offres d’emploi publiées). La diversification de l’échantillon permet d’effectuer des comparaisons sur les trois niveaux d’analyse possibles : micro, méso et macro. Il ressort des analyses qu’une détérioration des conditions de travail et d’emploi s’enregistre à mesure que l’on descend dans la chaîne de valeur. Plus précisément, trois facteurs sont susceptibles de faire varier les conditions de travail et d’emploi. Il s’agit effectivement de la position de l’entreprise ou de l’établissement dans la chaîne de valeur (pivot, sous-traitant), mais également de son type d’activité (abattage et première transformation ou seconde transformation) et de la configuration de l’externalisation (agences de placement de personnel ou sous-traitance). De plus, lors de cette recherche, quatre types de relations d’emploi ont pu être observées, soit des relations bipartites typiques, bipartites atypiques, multipartites en sous-traitance et multipartites en agences de placement de personnel. La comparaison de ces diverses modalités a permis de comprendre comment l’externalisation transforme la relation d’emploi classique, ainsi que les effets de cette transformation sur les conditions de travail et d’emploi. En s’intéressant à l’externalisation, cette recherche démontre que ce choix stratégique comporte des enjeux pour le travail et l’emploi (par exemple, difficulté d’application des normes minimales et de santé et sécurité du travail), mais également pour l’ensemble de la société. Elle met de plus en lumière les limites des théories classiques en relations industrielles dans l’explication du phénomène de l’externalisation et invite à leur renouvellement. Mots-clés : externalisation, agences de placement de personnel, sous-traitance, relation d’emploi, conditions de travail.

The likelihood of clashes between international norms has increased in correlation with the upsurge in the number of specialised regimes emerging within the international legal field. The present thesis takes a closer look at the different ways in which such norm conflicts can be addressed at the international level. In particular, it distinguishes between conflict resolution based on establishing priority by means of traditional maxims, and resolution based on the weighing of clashing norms to determine which prevails in the case at hand. To do so, the thesis takes a step back from the existing literature and examines the distinction within norms between rules and principles, relying predominantly on Robert Alexy’s theory on this subject. Taking a legal-theoretical approach to the subject of international norm conflicts, this thesis shows that Alexy’s principles theory is not only transferrable to international law in theory, but that we can, moreover, identify international norms as rules and principles respectively. Distinguishing between the different ways in which conflicts are resolved depending on whether the norms involved are rules or principles, it is shown that while both approaches are susceptible to certain conceptual uncertainties and pitfalls, this dichotomy nevertheless plays an important role in the efficiency of the international legal system, ensuring that a certain balance between stability and flexibility is maintained. Ultimately, it is demonstrated that by viewing international law, and international norm conflicts in particular, through the lens of Alexy’s principles theory, we can gain a clearer understanding of the structure and application of international norms on the one hand and, as a result, how to resolve international norm conflicts on the other. Thus, drawing a distinction between rules and principles among international legal norms can be a means by which scholars (as well as judicial bodies or even states) may analyse ambiguous judicial decisions or international legal provisions, and can thus foster greater clarity in the field of international law.

The world of work has changed and this includes its fundamental design, purpose and coverage of employment. Work in the informal economy has increased and in many developing and middle income countries, work in the informal economy is the norm. In South Africa as well as in other developing countries informal economy workers do not enjoy sufficient protection in terms of labour and social protection measures. These workers are not recognised, regulated or protected by labour legislation or social protection measures and can be characterised by varying degrees of dependency and vulnerability. In countries where the informal economy is increasingly creating a parallel economic world to that of the formal economy, the extension of protection by facilitating the ability of these workers to bargain collectively and the role of national and local governments become increasingly important. Women workers in the informal economy are particularly vulnerable and face discrimination on multiple grounds and levels as gender inequalities in the informal economy cut across race and class lines. Linkages between informality, gender and poverty exists, namely: the poor are more likely to work in the informal economy; more poor women than non-poor women work in the informal economy and that there is a gender gap in earnings in the informal economy as women were earning less than their male counterparts and were less likely to be organised and have social protection. It is of the utmost importance that labour and social legislation accommodates and extends protection to informal economy workers. The larger the informal economy becomes, the greater the need becomes for social and labour protection. It will be impossible to provide these workers with the protection they deserve without legislative intervention. Furthermore, this intervention must be innovative and tailor-made to successfully extend labour and social protection to informal economy workers. When considering the protection of these workers it is also of importance to explore the design and implementation of innovative and tailor-made solutions, considering for example the nature of their work and their workplace. The focus of this study is specifically on distinctive vulnerable categories of women workers in the informal economy who are without adequate labour and social protection. These categories are domestic workers, informal traders and waste pickers. It is important to consider lessons learnt in other jurisdictions to adequately address the challenges in the informal economy. This study considers interventions in two leading developing jurisdictions, namely India and Brazil. Both these countries have a high prevalence of informal workers with inadequate labour and social protection. Labour law must thus meet the challenges posed by the realities of new forms of work. The important function of labour law to protect and promote the human dignity of workers will often result in a cross-over of various subsystems of the law. If we consider human dignity as an important component of labour law, then we need to consider an interdisciplinary approach and the promotion of such an approach. This approach will mean that labour law can no longer function in isolation and other branches of the law, such as social security law, corporate law, human rights and family law will increasingly have an impact on the human dignity of workers. When considering the future of labour law and specifically in relation to the labour and social protection of women in the informal economy, it is vital that the new framework is intrinsically linked to concepts such as democracy, social justice, freedom, and human rights. International and regional institutions are playing an increasingly important role in the empowerment of women, the promotion of equality and decent work for all women. This study identifies and critically considers the relevant international institutions and instruments, the impact of international standards, regional institutions and regional labour standards, particularly those of the African Union (AU) and the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), and other global initiatives directed at the social and labour protection of women workers in the informal economy. The South African position with reference to domestic workers appears to provide an adequate regulatory framework in respect of the regulation of these workers; however, in practice there are various challenges, including the enforcement of the legislative provisions and a disregard for the notion of substantive equality. Although domestic workers enjoy some protection, waste pickers and informal traders as own-account workers without a distinctive employee-employer relationship are excluded from most labour and social protection measures and innovative and tailor-made solutions are required. The regulation of waste pickers and informal traders in South Africa is fragmented and lacks comprehensive and uniform legislation is absent. Voice and representation is of paramount importance to these women to ensure decent work. Enabling frameworks must be established to promote this. One of the most important objectives of organisation for women workers is to promote the recognition of these women and given their vulnerabilities experienced on various levels, this recognition must be wide and include recognition as workers, citizens and members of society that must be afforded human dignity on all levels. The position of the three categories of women workers was also considered in two jurisdictions, namely India and Brazil to distil best practices with reference to these workers. The research question of this study is: How can labour law and social protection measures provide vulnerable women workers in the informal economy with the appropriate protection to ultimately give effect to decent work? The main inquiry of this thesis, therefore, is to explore the issue of extending labour and social protection to these workers through the extension of existing labour and social security rights; including, where necessary, the design and implementation of innovative and tailor-made solutions.

This research sought to establish whether the general acceptance that the common construction and engineering contracts as falling within the classification of the locatio conductio under South African law is correct. As the classification of a contract attracts specific essentialia and naturalia, and then too certain implied terms one example of an implied term that would have practical relevance is specifically investigated: The warranty against latent defects. Through this example I seek to demonstrate the relevance and importance of establishing what the classification of these contracts is, and its ensuing essentialia and naturalia. The investigation commenced by firstly considering the classification of the common building, construction and engineering contracts, with reference to the South African publications of JBCC and GCC, as well as the internationally published FIDIC Silver Book, FIDIC Yellow Book, and FIDIC Red Book, as well as the NEC ECC Option A and Option B. With alternate dispute resolution mechanisms, such as adjudication and arbitration, resulting in limited publications by way of case law and academic writing on the subject (specifically in South Africa), English law and German law were also consulted. It was established that, unfortunately, the classification of the common building, construction and engineering contracts under South African law is problematic: It does not fit the ordinary and previously accepted classifications, specifically that of the locatio conductio. This makes it questionable whether the warranty against latent defects could be, and should be, implied into any one of these contracts. The recommendation, accordingly, is that it is crucial for the construction and engineering industry to carefully consider and develop the true and relevant essentialia and naturalia applicable to these contracts. Only then will there be certainly as to what may be implied into these contracts, and what will not so be implied. Until this is achieved, the parties to these contracts, in order to have certainty, must deal with aspects such as the warranty against latent defects by way of an explicit written term in the particular contract.

Anonim şirketlerde pay ve oy çoğunluğunu elinde bulunduranlar bir araya geldikleri zaman, hâkimiyeti elinde bulundurdukları için şirket yönetimini etkileyecek kararları alarak, kendi kararları doğrultusunda şirketi yönlendirebilirler. Çoğunluğu elinde tutanların gücü karşısında azlık ve münferit pay sahiplerinin korunması, onlara bazı bireysel haklar tanınması ile sağlanmaya çalışılmıştır. Çalışmamızın konusu Anonim Ortaklıklar Hukuku'nda Özel Denetim'dir. TTK'nin "pay sahibinin kişisel haklarıˮ ana başlığı ve V. numaralı özel denetim isteme hakkı alt başlığı altında TTK m.438 ve 444' da düzenlenen özel denetim isteme hakkı, anonim ortaklıkta önemli bir bireysel ortaklık ve azlık haklarından birisini oluşturmaktadır. Aydınlatıcı haklar olarak adlandırılan bilgi alma ve inceleme hakkı ile özel denetim isteme hakları; şirketin faaliyetleri, işlemleri, ekonomik durumu hakkında yeterli bilgiye sahip olmayan pay sahiplerinin, bu haklarını kullanarak daha bilinçli olmalarını sağlarlar. Bu iki hak, hem önleyici hem de telafi edici niteliktedir. According to Article 438, CO Art.697a, any shareholder may introduce a motion at the general meeting of shareholders calling for certain facts to be subject to a special examination by a special and independent searcher. The special examination has to be necessary for the exercising of the shareholders' rights. If the shareholders' meeting approves the motion, the judge (called upon by the Company or by shareholder) appoints the special searcher. If the general meeting does not approve the motion calling for the appointment of the appointment of the special searcher, shareholders who represent at least ten percent of the share capital or who represent shares with par value of one million Turkish Lira may request the judge to appoint a special searcher. The shareholders are legally entitled to the appointment of a special searcher if they credibly establish that corporate bodies have violated the law or the articles of incorporation and have thereby damaged company or shareholders. Special examination has a pre-condition for requesting, as per article TTK m.438, in order for a shareholder to request a special examination, that shareholder or any shareholder of the company should have duly consumed its right to information and examination. This is pre- condition for requesting the special examination

Lorsqu’un débiteur non commerçant ne peut faire face à ses engagements, il est dans l’état de déconfiture, alors que s’il est commerçant, sont applicable des procédures collectives prévues par le droit commercial. Les difficultés de l’entreprise peuvent être traitées soit par la prévention et le traitement non judiciaire, comme la prévention par l’information économique et la prévention par l’information comptable et la prévention par l’alerte des dirigeants et le traitement administratif et conventionnel, soit par le traitement judiciaire, qui englobe la procédure de sauvegarde et le règlement et redressement judiciaires d’une part, et la faillite et la liquidation judiciaire d’autre part. When a non-trading debtor can not meet his obligations, he is in a state of collapse, whereas if he is a merchant, collective procedures provided for by commercial law are applicable. The difficulties of the company can be treated either by the prevention and the non-judicial treatment, as the prevention by the economic information and the prevention by the accounting information and the prevention by the alert of the leaders and the administrative and conventional treatment or by judicial treatment, which includes the procedure of safeguard and settlement and judicial reorganization on one hand, and bankruptcy and judicial liquidation on the other hand. عندما يتعذر على المدين الغير تاجر الوفاء بتعهداته، يكون في حالة إعسار في حين أنه إذا كان تاجرا، فتطبق الإجراءات الجماعية المنصوص عليها في القانون التجاري. ويمكن معالجة الصعوبات التي تواجهها الشركة إما بالوقاية والمعالجة غير القضائية، مثل الوقاية عن طريق المعلومات الاقتصادية والوقاية بواسطة المعلومات المحاسبية والوقاية عن طريق تنبيه المسيرين والمعالجة الإدارية والاتااقية أو المعالجة القضائية، التي تشمل إجراءات الانقاذ والتسوية والتقويم القضائي من جهة، والإفلاس والتصاية القضائية من جهة أخرى

This doctoral thesis examines liability for discrimination under Swedish private law. According to chapter 5, section 1 of the Swedish Discrimination Act (diskrimineringslagen) compensation shall be paid by natural or legal persons who violate the prohibitions of discrimination that are established in the act. The purpose of the compensation is not only to compensate the person discriminated against for the violation of the right to equal treatment, but also to prevent further discrimination. The thesis examines two main questions: (i) what preconditions need to be fulfilled in order to establish liability for discrimination? and (ii) what circumstances affect the amount of compensation? An overarching aim of the thesis is to create an understanding of the characteristic problems and questions that occur when handling discrimination-related questions in a private law context. Consideration is taken to the EU law background and the aim, articulated in EU directives, to achieve effective, proportionate and dissuasive remedies for breaches of the principle of equal treatment. The research focuses on the prohibitions applicable in the working life and regarding goods, services and housing. It includes detailed analyses of the prohibitions against direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, inadequate accessibility, harassment and sexual harassment. The analyses deal with questions concerning the subjective motives of the discriminating party, problematic aspects considering the burden of proof as well as the exceptions from the prohibitions. Circumstances affecting the amount of compensation are analysed considering the character of the discriminating behaviour and its effects. Certain aspects attributable to the preventive function of the damages are examined, as well as how they have been decisive in the court judgements.

Insurance fraud is a major issue in the insurance industry. Insurance companies around the world are all facing significant losses due to the prevalence of fraudulent claims. These fraudulent claims and subsequent losses suffered by insurers inevitably lead to a dilution of the insurance pool and result in other policyholders bearing the brunt of these losses. The inevitable solution for insurers is to hike the premiums for all other policyholders in order to compensate for their losses caused by fraudulent claims. Insurance fraud is an international problem and it is common for insurers in most jurisdictions to use forfeiture clauses. These clauses aim to protect the insurer by stating that if the policyholder should submit any type pf fraudulent claim, the policyholder will forfeit the entire claim. There has been much controversy around the validity and fairness of these clauses. This thesis seeks to provide an overview of the prevalence of fraudulent insurance claims in South Africa, England, Australia and New Zealand. Moreover, it will consider the fairness of forfeiture clauses in light of the fundamental movement towards policyholder protection in recent years both in South Africa and in those jurisdictions that form part of the comparative study. The thesis concludes that forfeiture clauses form an indispensable part of short-term insurance contracts and are justifiable and therefore lawful. It is, however, submitted that insurance companies have a duty to disclose the nature and extent of forfeiture clauses at the inception of the policy and again at claim stage. By using so-called staggered disclosure, insurers provide policyholders with the opportunity to consider their claim and the means with which to prove it in order to avoid instituting a fraudulent claim. The thesis recommends that these rules pertaining to staggered disclosure should form part of the 2018 Policyholder Protection Rules, together with a statutory definition of insurance fraud.

The use of conduit company treaty shopping structures is often regarded as an impermissible erosion of a country’s tax base. For a developing country, such as South Africa, the protection of its tax base is an important policy consideration. Arguably, one way of combatting conduit company treaty shopping structures is by including in a country’s double taxation agreements the beneficial ownership requirement set out in Article 10(2) of the OECD MTC. The study examines how a South African court would interpret this requirement in provisions in South African double taxation agreements in the context of conduit company treaty shopping involving conduit companies receiving dividends. The study firstly considers whether the beneficial ownership requirement can be regarded as an anti-avoidance rule aimed at combatting conduit company treaty shopping falling outside agents and nominee scenarios. It further considers whether the term “beneficial owner” should have a legal or economic meaning. It explores the meanings given to this term by scholars and foreign courts and the OECD in its Commentaries to the OECD MTC. The study also considers the application of the rules of interpretation contained in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties when giving meaning to this term. Lastly, the study considers whether the term should have the meaning assigned to it under the domestic law of a treaty country, or under international tax law. As part of this enquiry, the meanings of the expression “beneficial owner” in South African case law and legislation are explored.

This study was motivated by the quest to find new innovative and practical ways of combating public procurement corruption in developing countries to complement the existing measures. This was achieved by comparing three jurisdictions, Hong Kong-China, Botswana and South Africa. The focus was on how each jurisdiction uses the following four measures to curb public procurement corruption: criminal measures; administrative measures; institutional measures and civil activism measures. It was established that Hong Kong uses what this study has classified as the traditional approach of combating public procurement corruption. The traditional approach is characterised by the use of a separate procurement legal framework and a separate corruption legal framework to curb public procurement corruption. Its strengths are in the strict enforcement of criminal measures that are anchored on a robust legal framework, a clear anti-corruption strategy, an independent anti-corruption agency (institutional measure), effective internal oversight and a strong political will. However, the following weaknesses of the traditional approach were identified: over reliance on criminal measures; excessive dependence on one enforcement institution; it neglects the development of administrative measures and has weak civil activism measures. It was established that Botswana uses what this study has classified as the classical approach of combating public procurement corruption. The classical approach is characterised by a procurement legal framework that incorporates very minimum anti-corruption provisions. The anti-corruption provisions in the procurement legislation are enforced by an external institution (the DCEC in the case of Botswana) which relies heavily on the criminal measures. Its strengths are the following: a strong legal framework which provides for a clear anti-corruption strategy; it has anti-corruption units in each Ministry and it has a dedicated Corruption Court. However, the classical approach has the following weaknesses: the anti-corruption agency is not adequately independent as it under the control of the executive (the President in the case of Botswana); lacks effective internal oversight mechanisms; weak political will; neglects the development of administrative measures and civil activism measures are almost non-existent save for the media. It was established that South Africa uses what this study has classified as the traditional cum silo approach of combating public procurement corruption. The traditional cum approach is characterised by multiple procurement legislation which has certain but minimum anti-corruption provisions and a separate corruption legal framework. Multiple anti-corruption agencies are prone to political interference which renders them ineffective and unfit for purpose. Its strength is in the promotion and protection of civil activism measures (right to access information, right to freedom of speech and legal protection of whistle-blowers). Notable weaknesses of the traditional cum silo approach are: the poor enforcement of criminal measures; there is no lead anti-corruption agency that spearheads and coordinates all cases of public procurement corruption; there is no clear anti-corruption strategy; the administrative measures such as debarment are poorly enforced; it has multiple anti-corruption institutions that lack focus and professionalism which results in political manipulation. The thesis concluded by suggesting a new approach, the contemporary approach to combating public procurement corruption which entails the enactment of a single procurement legislation (model law) the Public Procurement and Combating of Public Procurement Corruption Act (hereafter PPCPPC). The contemporary approach advocates for the regulation of public procurement and the combating of public procurement corruption in one legislation. This legislation (PPCPPC) takes into account, the current demands for public procurement as well as future developments of public procurement. These include but are not limited to self-cleaning, cyber-crime and public procurement corruption as well as the role of foreign convictions for debarment purposes. The envisaged PPCPPC will in addition to regulating public procurement, encompass the best criminal measures, administrative measures, institutional measures and civil activism measures. In addition, the contemporary approach through the PPCPPC proposes two new innovations: the corruption clearance certificate and a mandatory anti-corruption clause in all government contracts.

Modern electronic commerce is chiefly characterised by the use of unattended computers in the negotiation and conclusion of agreements. Commonly referred to as "electronic agents," these computers assist their users to negotiate better and profitable deals in virtual marketplaces. In South Africa, the legal force and effect of automated transactions, i.e. agreements concluded by electronic agents, is addressed in section 20 of the Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 25 of 2002 (hereinafter referred to as the ECT Act). According to section 20 (a) of the ECT Act, a valid and enforceable agreement will be formed where an electronic agent performs an action required by law for agreement formation. The same statute provides further in section 20 (b) that a valid and enforceable agreement will be formed where all the parties to a transaction or either one of them uses an electronic agent. The overall effect of these provisions is that an agreement cannot be denied legal validity and enforceability on the ground that an electronic agent was used, whether by one or both parties, to conclude it. Likewise, an agreement cannot be denied legal validity and enforceability on the ground that no human being took part in its formation. Although the ECT Act provides as a general matter that automated transactions are valid and enforceable in South Africa, that statute does not, however, create new rules for the formation of such agreements. This is made clear in section 3, which provides, amongst others, that the ECT Act should not be interpreted to exclude the application of the common law of contract to electronic transactions. Therefore, as with traditional or non-automated agreements, automated transactions too must satisfy the individual requirements of a valid contract at common law. As a matter of fact, the common law theory of contract formation is predominantly based on the assumption that human volition will always play a pivotal role in the making, acceptance or rejection of offers. For that reason, this research proceeds on a strong hypothesis that common law rules and principles pertaining to the formation of agreements are either insufficient or inadequate to accommodate the validity of agreements concluded by computers without the immediate intervention of their users. Consequently, the aim of this research is to discuss how the rules and principles of the common law of contract can be modified or developed in order to accommodate, within the common law theory of contract formation, the statutory validity of automated transactions in South Africa. The discussion of this research is limited to five legal issues, namely the basis of contractual liability in automated transactions, the analysis of offer and acceptance in automated transactions, the time and place of contract formation in automated transactions, the incorporation of standard terms and conditions in automated transactions, and the treatment of mistakes and errors in automated transactions. These issues are discussed first with reference to South African law, primarily with the purpose of determining the extent to which relevant common law rules and principles provide adequate solutions to specific challenges posed by automated transactions. To the extent that relevant common law rules and principles do not provide adequate solutions to the challenges of automated transactions, recommendations are made in this research for their development or modification. As shall be demonstrated in the course of this work, in relation to some of the abovementioned legal issues, the development or modification of common law rules has been done by the ECT Act. These "statutory developments or modifications of the common law" are also discussed in this work, primarily with the aim of determining the extent to which they provide adequate solutions to specific challenges posed by automated transactions. To the extent that these statutory modifications of the common law do not provide adequate solutions to the challenges of automated transactions, recommendations are made in this work on how the relevant provisions of the ECT Act may be interpreted by courts of law or amended by Parliament in order to strengthen the response of that statute. The abovementioned legal issues are also discussed in this work with reference to US and UK law, primarily with the purpose of determining how the law addresses the challenges of automated transactions in these jurisdictions, and to draw valuable lessons for the development or modification of South African contract law.

L’assurance de responsabilité civile des entreprises a pour but de garantir l’entreprise contre les conséquences pécuniaires de sa responsabilité civile. Elle constitue en quelque sorte pour l’entreprise une protection contre les risques de poursuites en ce qu’elle oblige l’assureur, dans les limites de l’assurance, à prendre fait et cause pour l’assuré dans toute poursuite dirigée contre lui pour un dommage causé à un tiers dont il est imputable, et à payer au tiers, en lieu en place de l’entreprise assurée, l’indemnité accordée à ce tiers en réparation du préjudice qui lui a été causé par celle-ci. Il s’agit d’un outil de gestion des risques commerciaux indispensable dans une société où les rapports civils entre les entreprises et les personnes morales ou physiques avec qui elle entre en relation sont de plus en plus complexes et où les risques de responsabilité des entreprises se multiplient et menacent constamment de mettre en péril son patrimoine. L’usage de l’assurance de responsabilité civile des entreprises est à ce point généralisé qu’il serait actuellement impensable pour une entreprise, même minimalement organisée, de ne pas y souscrire. Mais cette assurance n’est pas une panacée. Nombre de risques de responsabilité sont clairement exclus de sa garantie en raison de leur caractère non assurable ou encore parce que l’assureur a choisi conventionnellement d’en laisser la charge à l’assuré. C’est le cas, spécialement, de certains risques de responsabilité bien spécifiques généralement appelés « risques d’affaires ». Il existe un principe selon lequel ces risques ne peuvent faire l’objet de l’assurance de responsabilité civile des entreprises, soit parce que leur fréquence est trop élevée ou parce qu’ils sont trop étendus pour être transférés à la mutualité, soit parce qu’ils sont la contrepartie de l’espérance de profit de l’entreprise et que leur prise en charge par l’assurance aurait pour effet de dénaturer le contrat, transformant celui-ci en garantie d’exécution des obligations contractuelles de l’assuré. Les fondements de cette règle d’exclusion sont toutefois contestables et les limites des risques que l’on dit exclus sont mal définies, rendant l’étendue de la garantie à leur égard très incertaine. La présente étude se veut une contribution à l’étude de l’étendue de la garantie des risques de responsabilité de l’entreprise dans l’assurance de responsabilité civile des entreprises. Plus précisément, elle a pour objet de circonscrire les risques d’entreprise pris en charge par l’assurance et de déterminer quels sont les risques dits d’« affaires » qui sont exclus de la garantie offerte par cette forme d’assurance.

Ücret hakkı acentenin en temel hakkı olup Türk Ticaret Kanunu'nun 113 ila 116. maddeleri arasında düzenlenmiştir. Hangi işlemlerin acenteye ücret hakkı kazandıracağı 113. maddede yer almaktadır. Bu hükme göre acente doğrudan kendi katkısıyla kurulan işlemler sebebiyle ücrete hak kazanabileceği gibi, müvekkile daha önce kazandırdığı müşterilerle sonradan kurulan aynı nitelikteki işlemler sebebiyle de ücrete hak kazanabileceği ifade edilmiştir. Söz konusu hükme göre ayrıca acente, kendisine belirli bir bölge veya müşteri çevresi bırakıldığı takdirde, bu bölgede veya müşteri çevresiyle kendi katkısı olmadan kurulan işlemler sebebiyle de ücrete hak kazanabilecektir. Yine aynı hükme göre acente, bazı şartların varlığı halinde acentelik sözleşmesinin bitiminden sonra kurulan işlemler sebebiyle de ücrete hak kazanmaktadır. Acentenin ücrete hak kazanabilmesi için Türk Ticaret Kanunu m. 113'e göre ücrete hak kazandıran bir işlemin varlığına ek olarak, m. 114'te ifade edildiği üzere kurulan işlemin ifası da gerekir. İşlemin ifasıyla doğan ücret hakkı, doğumu tarihinden itibaren en geç üç ay içinde ve her halde sözleşmenin sona erdiği tarihte muaccel olur (m. 116). Acentenin, ücret istemi, muacceliyeti ve hesaplanması bakımından önemli olan bütün konular hakkında kontrol hakkı bulunmaktadır. Bu hak, onun bilgi alma, müvekkilin defter kayıtlarının suretlerinin gönderilmesini talep ve inceleme hakkı olmak üzere üç haktan oluşmaktadır. Çalışmamızın birinci bölümünde Türk ve karşılaştırmalı hukukta konunun düzenlenişi ile kavramsal çerçeve üzerinde durulacak; ikinci bölümünde ücrete hak kazanılmasının şartları ele alındıktan sonra üçüncü bölümünde ücretin belirlenmesi, hesaplanması ile ödenmesi ve ücrete ilişkin kontrol hakkı açıklanmaya çalışılacaktır. The right of remuneration, which regulated between the Articles 113 to 116 of the Turkish Commercial Code, is the most fundamental right of commercial agent. According to Article 113, it is stated that the commercial agent has the right of remuneration due to the transactions established by its own contribution. Commercial agent has the right of remuneration also for same quality of transactions, which established later with the former customer. According to same Article, the commercial agent may also be entitled to remuneration, whether it is left in a certain area or customer environment, due to the transactions established in this area or the customer environment even without its own contribution. It is pointed in the same Article that, commercial agent also has the right of remuneration due to transactions established after the end of the commercial agency contract in the presence of certain conditions. As indicated in the Article 114, it is also necessary to perform the transaction, which gives the commercial agent the right of remuneration. The remuneration arising from the performance of the transaction shall be due within three months at the latest from the date of birth and in any circumstances at the date on which the contract is concluded (Article 116). The commercial agent has the right to control all matters that are important in terms of remuneration, accural and calculation. That right includes, the right to demand information, copies of the commercial book records of the client and examination. In the first part of our work we will focus on the regulations and conceptual framework of Turkish and comparative law. After considering the conditions of the acquisition of the remuneration in the second part, it is aimed to explain the determination and the calculation of the remuneration, payment and the control right of commercial agent about the right of remuneration in the final section.