Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Lorsqu’un débiteur non commerçant ne peut faire face à ses engagements, il est dans l’état de déconfiture, alors que s’il est commerçant, sont applicable des procédures collectives prévues par le droit commercial. Les difficultés de l’entreprise peuvent être traitées soit par la prévention et le traitement non judiciaire, comme la prévention par l’information économique et la prévention par l’information comptable et la prévention par l’alerte des dirigeants et le traitement administratif et conventionnel, soit par le traitement judiciaire, qui englobe la procédure de sauvegarde et le règlement et redressement judiciaires d’une part, et la faillite et la liquidation judiciaire d’autre part. When a non-trading debtor can not meet his obligations, he is in a state of collapse, whereas if he is a merchant, collective procedures provided for by commercial law are applicable. The difficulties of the company can be treated either by the prevention and the non-judicial treatment, as the prevention by the economic information and the prevention by the accounting information and the prevention by the alert of the leaders and the administrative and conventional treatment or by judicial treatment, which includes the procedure of safeguard and settlement and judicial reorganization on one hand, and bankruptcy and judicial liquidation on the other hand. عندما يتعذر على المدين الغير تاجر الوفاء بتعهداته، يكون في حالة إعسار في حين أنه إذا كان تاجرا، فتطبق الإجراءات الجماعية المنصوص عليها في القانون التجاري. ويمكن معالجة الصعوبات التي تواجهها الشركة إما بالوقاية والمعالجة غير القضائية، مثل الوقاية عن طريق المعلومات الاقتصادية والوقاية بواسطة المعلومات المحاسبية والوقاية عن طريق تنبيه المسيرين والمعالجة الإدارية والاتااقية أو المعالجة القضائية، التي تشمل إجراءات الانقاذ والتسوية والتقويم القضائي من جهة، والإفلاس والتصاية القضائية من جهة أخرى

This doctoral thesis examines liability for discrimination under Swedish private law. According to chapter 5, section 1 of the Swedish Discrimination Act (diskrimineringslagen) compensation shall be paid by natural or legal persons who violate the prohibitions of discrimination that are established in the act. The purpose of the compensation is not only to compensate the person discriminated against for the violation of the right to equal treatment, but also to prevent further discrimination. The thesis examines two main questions: (i) what preconditions need to be fulfilled in order to establish liability for discrimination? and (ii) what circumstances affect the amount of compensation? An overarching aim of the thesis is to create an understanding of the characteristic problems and questions that occur when handling discrimination-related questions in a private law context. Consideration is taken to the EU law background and the aim, articulated in EU directives, to achieve effective, proportionate and dissuasive remedies for breaches of the principle of equal treatment. The research focuses on the prohibitions applicable in the working life and regarding goods, services and housing. It includes detailed analyses of the prohibitions against direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, inadequate accessibility, harassment and sexual harassment. The analyses deal with questions concerning the subjective motives of the discriminating party, problematic aspects considering the burden of proof as well as the exceptions from the prohibitions. Circumstances affecting the amount of compensation are analysed considering the character of the discriminating behaviour and its effects. Certain aspects attributable to the preventive function of the damages are examined, as well as how they have been decisive in the court judgements.

Insurance fraud is a major issue in the insurance industry. Insurance companies around the world are all facing significant losses due to the prevalence of fraudulent claims. These fraudulent claims and subsequent losses suffered by insurers inevitably lead to a dilution of the insurance pool and result in other policyholders bearing the brunt of these losses. The inevitable solution for insurers is to hike the premiums for all other policyholders in order to compensate for their losses caused by fraudulent claims. Insurance fraud is an international problem and it is common for insurers in most jurisdictions to use forfeiture clauses. These clauses aim to protect the insurer by stating that if the policyholder should submit any type pf fraudulent claim, the policyholder will forfeit the entire claim. There has been much controversy around the validity and fairness of these clauses. This thesis seeks to provide an overview of the prevalence of fraudulent insurance claims in South Africa, England, Australia and New Zealand. Moreover, it will consider the fairness of forfeiture clauses in light of the fundamental movement towards policyholder protection in recent years both in South Africa and in those jurisdictions that form part of the comparative study. The thesis concludes that forfeiture clauses form an indispensable part of short-term insurance contracts and are justifiable and therefore lawful. It is, however, submitted that insurance companies have a duty to disclose the nature and extent of forfeiture clauses at the inception of the policy and again at claim stage. By using so-called staggered disclosure, insurers provide policyholders with the opportunity to consider their claim and the means with which to prove it in order to avoid instituting a fraudulent claim. The thesis recommends that these rules pertaining to staggered disclosure should form part of the 2018 Policyholder Protection Rules, together with a statutory definition of insurance fraud.

The use of conduit company treaty shopping structures is often regarded as an impermissible erosion of a country’s tax base. For a developing country, such as South Africa, the protection of its tax base is an important policy consideration. Arguably, one way of combatting conduit company treaty shopping structures is by including in a country’s double taxation agreements the beneficial ownership requirement set out in Article 10(2) of the OECD MTC. The study examines how a South African court would interpret this requirement in provisions in South African double taxation agreements in the context of conduit company treaty shopping involving conduit companies receiving dividends. The study firstly considers whether the beneficial ownership requirement can be regarded as an anti-avoidance rule aimed at combatting conduit company treaty shopping falling outside agents and nominee scenarios. It further considers whether the term “beneficial owner” should have a legal or economic meaning. It explores the meanings given to this term by scholars and foreign courts and the OECD in its Commentaries to the OECD MTC. The study also considers the application of the rules of interpretation contained in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties when giving meaning to this term. Lastly, the study considers whether the term should have the meaning assigned to it under the domestic law of a treaty country, or under international tax law. As part of this enquiry, the meanings of the expression “beneficial owner” in South African case law and legislation are explored.

Modern electronic commerce is chiefly characterised by the use of unattended computers in the negotiation and conclusion of agreements. Commonly referred to as "electronic agents," these computers assist their users to negotiate better and profitable deals in virtual marketplaces. In South Africa, the legal force and effect of automated transactions, i.e. agreements concluded by electronic agents, is addressed in section 20 of the Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 25 of 2002 (hereinafter referred to as the ECT Act). According to section 20 (a) of the ECT Act, a valid and enforceable agreement will be formed where an electronic agent performs an action required by law for agreement formation. The same statute provides further in section 20 (b) that a valid and enforceable agreement will be formed where all the parties to a transaction or either one of them uses an electronic agent. The overall effect of these provisions is that an agreement cannot be denied legal validity and enforceability on the ground that an electronic agent was used, whether by one or both parties, to conclude it. Likewise, an agreement cannot be denied legal validity and enforceability on the ground that no human being took part in its formation. Although the ECT Act provides as a general matter that automated transactions are valid and enforceable in South Africa, that statute does not, however, create new rules for the formation of such agreements. This is made clear in section 3, which provides, amongst others, that the ECT Act should not be interpreted to exclude the application of the common law of contract to electronic transactions. Therefore, as with traditional or non-automated agreements, automated transactions too must satisfy the individual requirements of a valid contract at common law. As a matter of fact, the common law theory of contract formation is predominantly based on the assumption that human volition will always play a pivotal role in the making, acceptance or rejection of offers. For that reason, this research proceeds on a strong hypothesis that common law rules and principles pertaining to the formation of agreements are either insufficient or inadequate to accommodate the validity of agreements concluded by computers without the immediate intervention of their users. Consequently, the aim of this research is to discuss how the rules and principles of the common law of contract can be modified or developed in order to accommodate, within the common law theory of contract formation, the statutory validity of automated transactions in South Africa. The discussion of this research is limited to five legal issues, namely the basis of contractual liability in automated transactions, the analysis of offer and acceptance in automated transactions, the time and place of contract formation in automated transactions, the incorporation of standard terms and conditions in automated transactions, and the treatment of mistakes and errors in automated transactions. These issues are discussed first with reference to South African law, primarily with the purpose of determining the extent to which relevant common law rules and principles provide adequate solutions to specific challenges posed by automated transactions. To the extent that relevant common law rules and principles do not provide adequate solutions to the challenges of automated transactions, recommendations are made in this research for their development or modification. As shall be demonstrated in the course of this work, in relation to some of the abovementioned legal issues, the development or modification of common law rules has been done by the ECT Act. These "statutory developments or modifications of the common law" are also discussed in this work, primarily with the aim of determining the extent to which they provide adequate solutions to specific challenges posed by automated transactions. To the extent that these statutory modifications of the common law do not provide adequate solutions to the challenges of automated transactions, recommendations are made in this work on how the relevant provisions of the ECT Act may be interpreted by courts of law or amended by Parliament in order to strengthen the response of that statute. The abovementioned legal issues are also discussed in this work with reference to US and UK law, primarily with the purpose of determining how the law addresses the challenges of automated transactions in these jurisdictions, and to draw valuable lessons for the development or modification of South African contract law.

L’assurance de responsabilité civile des entreprises a pour but de garantir l’entreprise contre les conséquences pécuniaires de sa responsabilité civile. Elle constitue en quelque sorte pour l’entreprise une protection contre les risques de poursuites en ce qu’elle oblige l’assureur, dans les limites de l’assurance, à prendre fait et cause pour l’assuré dans toute poursuite dirigée contre lui pour un dommage causé à un tiers dont il est imputable, et à payer au tiers, en lieu en place de l’entreprise assurée, l’indemnité accordée à ce tiers en réparation du préjudice qui lui a été causé par celle-ci. Il s’agit d’un outil de gestion des risques commerciaux indispensable dans une société où les rapports civils entre les entreprises et les personnes morales ou physiques avec qui elle entre en relation sont de plus en plus complexes et où les risques de responsabilité des entreprises se multiplient et menacent constamment de mettre en péril son patrimoine. L’usage de l’assurance de responsabilité civile des entreprises est à ce point généralisé qu’il serait actuellement impensable pour une entreprise, même minimalement organisée, de ne pas y souscrire. Mais cette assurance n’est pas une panacée. Nombre de risques de responsabilité sont clairement exclus de sa garantie en raison de leur caractère non assurable ou encore parce que l’assureur a choisi conventionnellement d’en laisser la charge à l’assuré. C’est le cas, spécialement, de certains risques de responsabilité bien spécifiques généralement appelés « risques d’affaires ». Il existe un principe selon lequel ces risques ne peuvent faire l’objet de l’assurance de responsabilité civile des entreprises, soit parce que leur fréquence est trop élevée ou parce qu’ils sont trop étendus pour être transférés à la mutualité, soit parce qu’ils sont la contrepartie de l’espérance de profit de l’entreprise et que leur prise en charge par l’assurance aurait pour effet de dénaturer le contrat, transformant celui-ci en garantie d’exécution des obligations contractuelles de l’assuré. Les fondements de cette règle d’exclusion sont toutefois contestables et les limites des risques que l’on dit exclus sont mal définies, rendant l’étendue de la garantie à leur égard très incertaine. La présente étude se veut une contribution à l’étude de l’étendue de la garantie des risques de responsabilité de l’entreprise dans l’assurance de responsabilité civile des entreprises. Plus précisément, elle a pour objet de circonscrire les risques d’entreprise pris en charge par l’assurance et de déterminer quels sont les risques dits d’« affaires » qui sont exclus de la garantie offerte par cette forme d’assurance.

Ücret hakkı acentenin en temel hakkı olup Türk Ticaret Kanunu'nun 113 ila 116. maddeleri arasında düzenlenmiştir. Hangi işlemlerin acenteye ücret hakkı kazandıracağı 113. maddede yer almaktadır. Bu hükme göre acente doğrudan kendi katkısıyla kurulan işlemler sebebiyle ücrete hak kazanabileceği gibi, müvekkile daha önce kazandırdığı müşterilerle sonradan kurulan aynı nitelikteki işlemler sebebiyle de ücrete hak kazanabileceği ifade edilmiştir. Söz konusu hükme göre ayrıca acente, kendisine belirli bir bölge veya müşteri çevresi bırakıldığı takdirde, bu bölgede veya müşteri çevresiyle kendi katkısı olmadan kurulan işlemler sebebiyle de ücrete hak kazanabilecektir. Yine aynı hükme göre acente, bazı şartların varlığı halinde acentelik sözleşmesinin bitiminden sonra kurulan işlemler sebebiyle de ücrete hak kazanmaktadır. Acentenin ücrete hak kazanabilmesi için Türk Ticaret Kanunu m. 113'e göre ücrete hak kazandıran bir işlemin varlığına ek olarak, m. 114'te ifade edildiği üzere kurulan işlemin ifası da gerekir. İşlemin ifasıyla doğan ücret hakkı, doğumu tarihinden itibaren en geç üç ay içinde ve her halde sözleşmenin sona erdiği tarihte muaccel olur (m. 116). Acentenin, ücret istemi, muacceliyeti ve hesaplanması bakımından önemli olan bütün konular hakkında kontrol hakkı bulunmaktadır. Bu hak, onun bilgi alma, müvekkilin defter kayıtlarının suretlerinin gönderilmesini talep ve inceleme hakkı olmak üzere üç haktan oluşmaktadır. Çalışmamızın birinci bölümünde Türk ve karşılaştırmalı hukukta konunun düzenlenişi ile kavramsal çerçeve üzerinde durulacak; ikinci bölümünde ücrete hak kazanılmasının şartları ele alındıktan sonra üçüncü bölümünde ücretin belirlenmesi, hesaplanması ile ödenmesi ve ücrete ilişkin kontrol hakkı açıklanmaya çalışılacaktır. The right of remuneration, which regulated between the Articles 113 to 116 of the Turkish Commercial Code, is the most fundamental right of commercial agent. According to Article 113, it is stated that the commercial agent has the right of remuneration due to the transactions established by its own contribution. Commercial agent has the right of remuneration also for same quality of transactions, which established later with the former customer. According to same Article, the commercial agent may also be entitled to remuneration, whether it is left in a certain area or customer environment, due to the transactions established in this area or the customer environment even without its own contribution. It is pointed in the same Article that, commercial agent also has the right of remuneration due to transactions established after the end of the commercial agency contract in the presence of certain conditions. As indicated in the Article 114, it is also necessary to perform the transaction, which gives the commercial agent the right of remuneration. The remuneration arising from the performance of the transaction shall be due within three months at the latest from the date of birth and in any circumstances at the date on which the contract is concluded (Article 116). The commercial agent has the right to control all matters that are important in terms of remuneration, accural and calculation. That right includes, the right to demand information, copies of the commercial book records of the client and examination. In the first part of our work we will focus on the regulations and conceptual framework of Turkish and comparative law. After considering the conditions of the acquisition of the remuneration in the second part, it is aimed to explain the determination and the calculation of the remuneration, payment and the control right of commercial agent about the right of remuneration in the final section.

Defective products cause harm to persons and property on a daily basis. Product Liability law has accordingly evolved as a specialised area of the law of delict which seeks to prevent product accidents from happening and provides compensation in the event that defective products nevertheless reach the consumer market. Accordingly product liability regimes generally have both ex ante components such as product standards, recall mechanisms and liability provisions which are aimed at deterrence and risk-spreading as well as provisions that are applied ex post to provide redress and compensation. Designing an appropriate legal framework to underpin a product liability regime is a daunting task that involves achieving of an appropriate balance between the interests of various parties inter alia those of consumers, suppliers and the broader community. In recent decades many countries have migrated from a fault-based product liability regime to a regime which purportedly imposes strict liability on the whole supply chain. This bold move in modern product liability was pioneered in the United States who has since returned to fault-based liability for design and warning defects whilst returning strict liability in respect of manufacturing defects. After many years South Africa has joined the group of countries that applies strict liability to all defects regardless of their type. Notably the product liability regime introduced into South African law by means of the Consumer Protection Act 68 of 2008 (“CPA”) resembles the main features of the EU Product Liability Directive 85/374/EEC. The EU Model has also been taken over by Australia when they transitioned to a purportedly strict product regime in 1992. During this process the thesis also considers whether, by adopting the European model, South Africa has taken over a model which has been criticised by some American authors as outdated and based on 1965 strict product liability rhetoric as contained in section 402A of the Restatement (Second) of Torts which approach has since been discarded in the US in favour of the hybrid approach contained in the US Restatement (Third): Product Liability. This thesis focuses on product liability ex delicto. Its main aim is to interrogate and evaluate the product liability provisions contained in section 61 of the CPA, specifically with regard to the pivotal concept of defect and the statutory defences the Act has introduced. It details South Africa’s journey from the fault-based common law of product liability to the purportedly strict regime espoused by the CPA, which regimes operate parallel to each other. This is done to facilitate an understanding of the differences between the two regimes and specifically to aid interpretation and application of the product liability provisions in the CPA that deal with defectiveness and the new statutory defences. In order to obtain further guidance on how the concept of “defect” and the statutory defences in the CPA should, or could, be interpreted and applied the thesis initially considers the general foundational principles underlying product liability law and how this area of law has evolved in the United States, being the origin of modern product liability law. However, given that the South African regime of “strict” product liability ex delicto has its roots in the EU Directive and resembles some of the adapted features of the Australian product liability regime contained in the comprehensive Australian Consumer Law, the main comparative focus is on these two jurisdictions.

Ex aequo et bono is a long-lived legal concept that enables arbitrators to decide a dispute based on notions of fairness instead of a strict application of legal norms. Jurists generally agree that arbitrators authorised to decide commercial disputes ex aequo et bono can more easily tailor arbitral procedure to achieve an efficient and fair dispute resolution process. They therefore agree that ex aequo et bono arbitration maximises procedural flexibility. However, this flexibility is now perceived more as a negative rather than a positive, despite the potential of ex aequo et bono to mitigate growing concerns about the ‘over-judicialisation’ of arbitration – the increasing formalisation and inefficiency of arbitral procedure. Commentators usually assert that ex aequo et bono introduces excessive unpredictability into arbitration and encourages arbitrators to abuse their discretion. As a result, ex aequo et bono has remained unpopular to this day. This thesis challenges this overly negative conception of ex aequo et bono. It does so particularly under the UNCITRAL Model Law, as an important foundation stone of the global commercial arbitration regime. The thesis investigates significant divergence in the understanding of ex aequo et bono across state jurisdictions and international arbitration institutions. It also analyses the core trends in actual legal practice and in thinking about the principle. The thesis thereby demonstrates that the Model Law requires arbitrators to ensure that their arbitral awards are based on three objective elements: contract terms, trade usages, and mandatory rules of law. Accordingly, while the Model Law allows arbitrators deciding ex aequo et bono to invoke their subjective conceptions of fairness as the ultimate gap-filler when discerning the intention of the parties, the scope for doing so is not unduly expansive. Further, the refinement of various legal theories underpinning international commercial arbitration has enabled parties to determine and challenge more readily the arbitrators’ subjective ideas of fairness. The thesis therefore concludes that the flexibility inherent in ex aequo et bono needs to be both re-evaluated and rejuvenated. It urges the international arbitration community to adopt a revitalised conception of ex aequo et bono to counter-balance the encroaching ‘over-judicialisation’ of arbitration.

As a company distribution is a means by which wealth is transferred, it is a fertile ground for tax law reform to broaden the tax base and protect South Africa against base erosion and profit shifting. The South African government has identified the corporate tax structure, and many specific corporate tax rules, as areas in South African law in need of reform, and through which the policy objectives of stimulating foreign direct investment, promoting economic growth, and creating more employment opportunities can be achieved. This study involves an analysis on two levels: the corporate tax structure; and the specific tax legislation governing company distributions in South Africa. These aspects are contrasted with comparable rules in Australia and Canada. The study also evaluates the extent to which these laws conform to the normative values of equity, efficiency, certainty, and transparency, with the aim of suggesting improvements to promote South Africa’s current policy objectives. There are a variety of design models for a corporate tax structure. In the context of distributions, the ideal design should resolve whether tax should be paid on profit earned by a company, and also be levied on a second level, on distributions made to the company’s shareholders. Certain jurisdictions merge these two levels of tax to create a single taxable event which avoids the economic double taxation of income. There is, however, no dominant or universal model and several solutions can be mooted. Australia follows an imputation system which taxes corporate income at the first level of tax but grants a tax credit to shareholders on distribution, which means this income is taxed only once. Canada applies a hybrid integration system which also combines the two levels of tax and grants a tax credit to certain individual shareholders on distribution. However, the principles applied in these two models differ. The South African corporate tax structure is a hybrid, dual-rate system in terms of which different rates apply to corporate income and distributions to shareholders. All three systems offer relief for taxpayers which partially eliminates double taxation, with Australia having eliminated it fully for resident shareholders. In broad terms, a company distribution can be made by a company to its shareholders through either a return on capital or a return of capital. The policy approach adopted by the South African government is that all net accretions of wealth by the taxpayer should be taxable. Despite government’s intentions, there is a significant difference in the taxation rules applied to returns of an income nature (dividends and income), on the one hand, and returns of a capital nature (returns of capital, distribution of assets in specie) on the other. In addition, the net accretion of wealth is not always taxable on distribution to shareholders. In most instances the tax liability in respect of the return of capital is either deferred, or alternative rules are created which deviate from the principles and immediate tax liability that apply to returns on capital (dividends and income). In certain instances this deviation is justified, but in others it could lead to inequity between taxpayers and a narrowing of the tax base – both undesirable effects. A number of proposals are made to improve the law applicable to the taxation of company distributions as regards specific transactions. These are aimed, principally, at protecting the South African tax base against base erosion and profit shifting, and aligning South Africa’s tax law with international trends. The study finds that through the application of its hybrid dual-rate corporate tax system, South Africa has reduced economic double taxation to some extent, and that it is unnecessary for South Africa to integrate company- and shareholder-level tax. In addition, a variety of changes are suggested to improve the tax legislation applicable to specific company distributions, and to promote equity, certainty, and revenue collection. The South African tax legislation regulating company distributions is, in the main, fit for purpose, although there is room for improvement when it comes to simplicity, structure, and certainty.

In recent years, investor-State tribunals have often permitted shareholders' claims for reflective loss despite the well-established principle of no reflective loss applied consistently in domestic regimes and in other fields of international law. Investment tribunals have justified their decisions by relying on definitions of "investment" in investment agreements that often include "shares", while the no-reflective-loss principle is generally justified on the basis of policy considerations pertaining to the preservation of the efficiency of the adjudicatory process and to the protection of other stakeholders, such as creditors. Although these policy considerations militating for the prohibition of shareholders' claims for reflective loss also apply in investor-State arbitration, they are curable in that context and must be balanced with policy considerations specific to the field of international investment law that weigh in favor of such claims: the protection of foreign investors in order to promote trade and investment liberalization.

أعدت قواعد روتردام بهدف ارساء مجموعة حديثة من القواعد الموحدة على الصعيد الدولي ، لتزويد أطراف عقد النقل البحري باليقين القانوني من أجل السير الحسن لعملية نقل البضائع عن طريق البحر وفق تبادل عادل للأعباء و المسؤوليات، لذلك يتعين على الدول النظر بعناية في مزايا الاتفاقية الجديدة حتى تقرر ما اذا كانت قواعد روتردام تلبي توقعاتها من حيث أحكامها الموضوعية و انعكاساتها الاقتصادية و كذلك من حيث قدرتها على توفير توحيد دولي للقوانين البحرية.لذا تجسد بحثنا من أجل دراسة أبعاد قواعد روتردام بالنسبة للدول الشاحنة.

عالجت هذه الرسالة النظام القانوني للسفينة .و في محاولة لتعريفها تبين ان الامر ليس بالشيء الهين نظرا لظهور اليات جديدة و عمارات بحرية مختلفة الشكل عن السفينة التقليدية اوجدها التطور التكنولوجي. ان هذا التنوع ترتب عنه اختلاف كبير في التعريفات ، و نجد عن كثرة المفاهيم غموض لم يكن من السهل تجاوزه لولا تدخل الفقه و القضاء الذين ساهما بشكل كبير في توضيح مفهوم السفينة عن طريق ايجاد معايير كان لها اثرها في بيان ما يعتبر سفينة و ما لا يعتبر كذلك . ثم تم التسائل في القسم الاول عما اذا كانت السفينة تشكل ذمة بحرية تتميز باستقلالها عن الذمة البرية . قد عولجت مسألة تخصيص هذه الذمة في القسم الثاني على ضوء النصوص الدولية و الوطنية و خاصة القانون البحري الجزائري و منها تبين ان السفينة ، و لاعتبارات معينة اصبحت تشكل ذمة تخصيص يعتمد عليها الدائنون البحريون عند منحهم لاي اعتماد مسحوب للسفينة و ذلك عن طريق حجزها ضمانا للديون البحرية دون غيرها

للاستثمار العربي في الج ا زئر أهمية خاصة لسببين: أحدهما يتعلق بأهمية الاستثمار في حد ذاته لما يلعبه من دور لا يستهان به في التنمية الاقتصادية للدولة، مؤث ا ر على كل جوانب الحياة في المجتمع بما يوفره من تطور اقتصادي وازدهار واستق ا رر، وثانيهما يرتبط باتخاذه وسيلة لتجسيد التعاون العربي المشترك وتحقيق التكامل المنشود منذ عقود، والذي تأكد عدم تحققه الا بالاعتماد على المدخل الإنتاجي من خلال توظيف رؤوس الأموال العربية في الدول العربية. بدافع هذين العاملين وجذبا لرؤوس الأموال العربية وضعت الج ا زئر اطا ا ر قانونيا ا زخ ا ر بالضمانات والامتيا ا زت بعد تحديد مفهوم الاستثمار العربي، هذا الإطار يتألف من الاحكام الاتفاقية السامية على التشريع الوطني الواردة في الاتفاقيات المبرمة بين الج ا زئر والدول العربية بعد المصادقة عليها، ومن احكام التشريع الوطني الذي يعد آلية قانونية تنفذ بها الدولة است ا رتيجياتها. ت ا زمن ذلك مع تهيئة مناخ الاستثمار بصفة عامة من خلال الإصلاحات التي طالت مختلف التشريعات المتعلقة بإقامة الاعمال اولاستثمار في الج ا زئر. جاءت هذه الد ا رسة لتبين معالم هذا الإطار القانوني، مكوناته ومدى تأثيره في رفع مست وى الاستثمار العربي في الج ا زئر كما ونوعا، ضمن مشاريع التكتل الإقليمي والجهوي او المبادلات الثنائية مع الدول العربية.

La réflexion sur la réglementation des contrats électroniques internationaux a pris, ces dernières années, une ampleur sans précédent.L’usage accru des communications électroniques à l’échelle internationale participe de manière remarquable à améliorer l’efficacité des activités économiques et sociales, à renforcer les relations entre Etats et à offrir de nouvelles possibilités de débouchés à des parties et à des marchés auparavant isolés.Pour cette raison, l’adoption de règles uniformes propres à éliminer les obstacles et valoriser les contrats électroniques internationaux serait susceptible de renforcer la certitude juridique et la prévisibilité commerciale des contrats internationaux et pourrait aider les États à avoir accès aux itinéraires commerciaux modernes.Le contrat électronique international constitue une nouvelle sphère qui mérite une recherche analytique afin de lui octroyer une sécurité juridique indispensable à son développement.Ce travail de recherche vise, donc, à élaborer une analyse systématique critique de la réglementation en vigueur qui régit le contrat électronique international et à examiner alors les textes existants aujourd’hui au regard des attentes de l’époque.Il vise à trouver les moyens juridiques susceptibles de garantir plus de sécurité au contrat électronique international.

Les difficultés qui peuvent être rencontrées par une entreprise sont multiformes et de degrés variables. Lorsqu’elles n’ont pas atteint le seuil suffisant permettant de déclencher une procédure collective, le chef d’entreprise rechigne bien souvent à dévoiler la véritable situation de leur entreprise. Les réticences à l’officialisation des difficultés tiennent parfois à des contingences socioculturelles tandis ou à des considérations d’ordre juridique. Le chef d’entreprise craint, le plus souvent, qu’il soit porté atteinte à l’exercice des prérogatives et responsabilités dont il a pratiquement seul la charge. L’apparition des difficultés peut déclencher divers contrôles de gestion de l’entreprise, mais aussi provoquer une réaction de méfiance, voire le retrait de certains partenaires financiers et/ou des collaborateurs importants. Les hésitations à révéler la situation préoccupante de l’entreprise s’expliquent aussi par le secret des affaires. En l’absence d’un véritable droit à l’information au profit des travailleurs, le chef d’entreprise peut juger de l’opportunité de donner ou non des informations. L’intérêt de l’entreprise est souvent invoqué pour justifier le silence, mais aussi pour canaliser la réaction des travailleurs. S’il s’exprime, le chef d’entreprise va pouvoir choisir les informations ainsi que le canal par lequel elles doivent parvenir aux destinataires.La procédure d’alerte en droit OHADA destinée à « réveiller les dirigeants insouciants de l’état périlleux de l’entreprise » mérite d’être saluée. L’employeur peut répondre aux difficultés par l’évitement des liens d’emplois, le développement des emplois précaires, l’externalisation et le recours aux travailleurs réellement ou non indépendants.La décision de restructuration prise par le dirigeant a des conséquences négatives sur la situation des salariés. L’article 11.8 du Code du travail qui impose le maintien des contrats de travail en cas de modification dans la situation juridique de l’employeur vise à en atténuer les conséquences. Il tente de préserver l’emploi et de permettre la poursuite de l’activité. Théoriquement, il s’agit d’une protection essentielle des salariés, mais en pratique, la "garantie d’emploi" est limitée à la seule période du changement de la situation juridique. L’ancien employeur et son successeur ne sont pas totalement privés de leur pouvoir de licencier, mais le transfert d’activité ne peut constituer en tant que tel un motif légitime de rupture des contrats. L’absence de solidarité légale entre les employeurs successifs rend difficile le paiement intégral des créances salariales.Pour autant, les travailleurs ne sont pas totalement abandonnés face à la décision patronale de procéder à des licenciements pour motif économique ; une procédure particulière doit être observée. Elle constitue l'ultime espoir de limitation de suppression d’emplois. Enfin, la liquidation de l’entreprise est synonyme de disparition des emplois. À cette occasion, la priorité est accordée aux mesures visant à sauver le capital. Le juge-commissaire qui a la responsabilité de se prononcer sur la réduction ou non du personnel décide presque toujours dans le sens souhaité par le dirigeant. Toutefois, lors de la formation du concordat, les travailleurs peuvent faire valoir des arguments permettant d’améliorer la consistance des mesures d’accompagnement de la suppression des emplois. La protection des intérêts des travailleurs en cas de difficultés de l’entreprise est insuffisante tant du point de vue des procédures que de l’indemnisation de la perte de l’emploi, ceci a notamment pour conséquence bien souvent d’attraire les salariés licenciés vers l’économie informelle pour assurer leur survie et celle de leur famille. The difficulties that can be encountered by a company are multiform and varying degrees. When they have not reached the sufficient threshold to trigger a collective procedure, the entrepreneur often refrains from revealing the true situation of their company. The reluctance to formalize difficulties sometimes arises from socio-cultural contingencies, or from legal considerations. In most cases, the entrepreneur fears that the exercise of the prerogatives and responsibilities of which he is almost solely responsible will be undermined. The emergence of difficulties can trigger various management controls of the company, but also provoke a reaction of mistrust, or even the withdrawal of some financial partners and / or important collaborators. The hesitation to reveal the worrying situation of the company is also explained by the secrecy of business. In the absence of a genuine right to information for the benefit of workers, the entrepreneur may decide whether or not to give information. The interest of the company is often invoked to justify the silence, but also to channel the reaction of the workers. If he speaks, the entrepreneur will be able to choose the information and the channel by which he must reach the recipients.The procedure of warning in OHADA law to "awaken the careless leaders of the perilous state of the enterprise" deserves to be welcomed. The employer can respond to difficulties by avoiding job bonds, developing precarious jobs, outsourcing and using genuine or non-independent workers.The restructuring decision taken by the manager has negative consequences for the employees' situation. Section 11.8 of the Labor Code, which requires the maintenance of employment contracts in the event of a change in the employer's legal position, is intended to mitigate the consequences. It tries to preserve employment and to allow the continuation of the activity. Theoretically, this is an essential protection for employees, but in practice the "employment guarantee" is limited to the only period of change in the legal situation. The former employer and his successor are not totally deprived of their power to dismiss, but the transfer of activity can not as such constitute a legitimate reason for breach of contract. The lack of legal solidarity between successive employers makes it difficult to pay full wage claims.However, the workers are not totally abandoned in the face of the employer's decision to make redundancies for economic reasons; a special procedure must be observed. It is the ultimate hope of limiting job losses. Finally, the liquidation of the company is synonymous with the disappearance of jobs. On this occasion, priority is given to measures to save capital. The judge-commissioner who is responsible for deciding on the reduction or not of the staff decides almost always in the direction desired by the officer. However, during the formation of the composition, the workers can put forward arguments to improve the consistency of measures accompanying the abolition of jobs. The protection of workers' interests in the event of company difficulties is insufficient both from the procedural point of view and from the compensation for loss of employment. This often leads to the attraction of redundant employees the informal economy to ensure their survival and that of their families.

Dans un contexte mondial marqué par l’essor d’une société de l’information, des savoirs partagés et de l’économie numérique, cette étude propose une évaluation de la protection des bases de données par le droit d’auteur, en privilégiant une approche comparative entre le droit français et le droit sénégalais. En mettant en exergue les éléments de convergence mais aussi de divergence qui ressortent de la confrontation des deux législations, cette analyse part de l’identification des forces et des faiblesses du droit d’auteur, en vue de proposer des orientations pour une amélioration du cadre juridique de la protection des bases de données. Le droit d’auteur étant le mécanisme de protection unanimement consacré pour les bases de données, il y a lieu, loin de s’en départir, d’identifier les meilleures options juridiques qui pourraient concourir à son renforcement. Dans cette optique, la prise en compte d’un équilibre parfait entre les divers intérêts en présence constitue un impératif pour le développement de la société de l’information. In a global context marked by the rise of an information society, shared knowledge and digital economy, this study proposes an assessment of the protection of databases by Copyright (french meaning), privileging a comparative approach between French and Senegalese law. By highlighting the elements of convergence but also of divergence that emerge from the confrontation between the two legislations, this analysis starts from the identification of the strengths and weaknesses of copyright, to propose orientations aimed at improving the legal framework for the protection of databases. Copyright being the unanimously consecrated protection mechanism for databases, it is necessary, far from divesting it, to identify the best legal options that could contribute to its reinforcement. In this respect, it is imperative to take into account a perfect balance between the various interests for the development of the information society.

Le registre du commerce présente le double aspect d'institution civile et d'institution de police. L'intérêt privé des tiers et l'intérêt public de l’État sont simultanément présents et protégés. Mais, on peut se demander si les rédacteurs de la loi relative au registre du commerce n'ont pas créé une situation délicate en ne tenant pas en compte suffisamment le souci de la sécurité juridique. La réponse à cette question est tributaire de l’étude des effets juridiques attachés à l'immatriculation. On envisage une étude comparative du droit tunisien et du droit français à travers laquelle on a pu constater qu'une définition de l'immatriculation par l'effet constitutif n'est pas apte à appréhender cette institution dans son ensemble. Il s’agit d’une notion ambivalente. Elle est ambivalente quant à son rôle à cause de l'hétérogénéité de son effet constitutif et de la diversité de ses effets. Elle est aussi ambivalente quant à sa finalité puisque le souci de la protection individuelle des tiers ne constitue pas son objectif prioritaire. D'abord, une certaine existence juridique est reconnue à la société avant son immatriculation. Il existe même une notion particulière de personnalité morale, dite à la fois judiciaire et processuelle, forgée par le juge civil pour les besoins du procès et en dehors de toute formalité d'immatriculation. Ensuite, le contrôle auquel est soumise l'immatriculation demeure un contrôle formel ; il n'empêche pas l'annulation de la société immatriculée. Enfin, l'immatriculation ne purge pas les irrégularités de la situation extériorisée aux tiers, elle crée désormais, une situation appareille. A travers la technique de la présomption et celle de l'opposabilité mises en œuvre par l'immatriculation, le législateur prend la défense de l'apparence sur la réalité. Il admet aussi la qualification de fait d'une situation non immatriculée. Cependant, les règles régissant l'immatriculation et le défaut d'immatriculation paraissent être insuffisantes. D'une part, elles ne peuvent régler tous les litiges, d'où l'intérêt du recours à la théorie d'apparence afin d'assurer aux tiers de bonne foi une sécurité absolue, D'autre part, la prise en considération de la situation de fait s'avère inutile puisqu'on a noté une assimilation quasi-complète entre le commerçant non immatriculé et celui immatriculé. Le contraste est saisissant avec la notion de société de fait puisque c'est le législateur qui accepte de l'assimiler à la société de droit. Pour faire face au risque de perturber l'ordre juridique engendré par cette assimilation, le législateur a favorisé la régularisation de la situation à travers l'injonction d'immatriculation et l'immatriculation d'office. Puisque ces mesures sont réservées aux seules personnes physiques, se pose alors avec acquitté la question de les généraliser pour intéresser même les sociétés non immatriculées. The register of commerce entails a dual aspect of both a civil institution and of an administrative police. The private interest of the third party as well as the public interest of the State are simultaneously present and safeguarded. Nevertheless, one might ask if the drafters of the law pertaining to the register of commerce have set up a critical situation by not taking into account sufficient concern for the legal security. The answer to this question depends on the study of the legal effects linked to registration. The target of this paper is to provide a comparative study of the Tunisian law and French law whereby it has been found that a definition of the registration by its constituent effect is not able to tackle this institution as a whole. It is about an ambivalent registration concept. It is ambivalent as to its role because of the heterogeneity of its constituent effects and the diversity of these effects. It is also ambivalent as to its purpose, since protecting the third party is not its priority. First, a certain legal existence is admitted to the company before its registration. There exists even a particular notion of the artificial entity of the company which is considered both procedural and legal, advocated by the judge in order to satisfy the needs of the case far away from the registration formalities. Moreover, the control that registration is subject to prove to be a very formal one i.e. it does not prevent the dissolution of the registered company. Finally, registration does not purify the anomalies of the situation that a third party may face as it creates as such an apparent situation. Through the presumption technique as well as the opposability implemented by registration, the legislator is much more defending the appearance than the reality. The legislator also acknowledges a qualification of a non­registered situation. However, registration rules as well as its defects turn to be insufficient. On the one hand, it does not solve all lawsuits, which makes the theory of appearance the best guarantee of an absolute security for third parties. On the other hand, taking into account a de facto situation turns to be useless as we have noticed a quasi-complete assimilation between a registered trader and a non-registered one. The contrast is striking with the notion of the de facto situation since the legislator has accepted to treat it in the same way as a registered company. In order to avoid the disturbance of legal order caused by this simulation, the legislator opted for a peaceful settlement of the conflicting situation through either a judge or a court order for registration. Since these measures are the prerogatives of a physical person, the question to tackle is to what extent these measures can be extended to suit the interests of the non-registered companies.

L’essor de la finance islamique moderne va poser logiquement la question de la résolution des litiges. En effet, le recours à la justice étatique aboutit à des impacts négatifs sur la réalisation des objectifs de la finance islamique et sur le développement de ce secteur d’activité. Dans cette optique, l’application de la législation nationale par le juge étatique aboutit à la requalification des contrats de financement islamique en des contrats de financement conventionnel. En outre, ce recours au juge étatique conduit à la neutralisation de la Charia en tant que droit applicable. Tout cela conduit à la dénaturation de la finance islamique. Cette dénaturation est une source de contradictions. On sait bien que les institutions financières islamiques reposent sur une obligation fondamentale, selon laquelle toutes les opérations financières effectuées doivent être conformes à la Charia. De plus, les personnes ayant recours à la finance islamique visent principalement à exercer des activités financières en toute conformité avec leurs principes religieux et éthiques issus de la législation islamique. L’étude a également montré que les modes amiables de règlement des litiges contribuent à prendre en considération la particularité de la finance islamique. Cependant, cette prise en compte reste insuffisante. En effet, ces modes ne présentent pas un mécanisme complet, homogène et cohérent de règlement des litiges relatifs à la finance islamique. Leur contribution à la construction d’un système juridique propre à la finance islamique est très limitée. De ce fait, ils ne peuvent pas participer efficacement à la promotion de l’industrie financière islamique. De plus, ils souffrent d’un défaut majeur au niveau de la force de la solution proposée : l’efficacité de cette solution dépend en principe de la bonne volonté des parties. Face à ce dysfonctionnement de la justice étatique et des modes amiables, la solution a été recherchée du côté de l'arbitrage. En effet, l’arbitrage connaît une expansion spectaculaire dans le monde actuel au point de devenir le mode normal de règlement des litiges. Cet essor exceptionnel de l’arbitrage se constate notamment dans la vie économique et financière. A l’heure actuelle, cette vie est devenue inconcevable sans l’arbitrage. En matière de finance islamique, l’arbitrage en tant que mécanisme reposant sur la liberté et la volonté apparaît comme la meilleure voie permettant la prise en considération de la spécificité de cette activité, l’application de la Charia dans le domaine de la résolution des litiges. C’est pourquoi, ce mode alternatif de règlement des litiges s’adapte parfaitement aux exigences des litiges relatifs à la finance islamique et pourrait contribuer à la promotion de ce secteur d’activité. Grâce aux avantages qu’il offre aux opérateurs de la finance islamique, l’arbitrage s’affirme comme la justice naturelle des litiges relatifs à la finance islamique. Pour renforcer le rôle de l’arbitrage dans le domaine de la finance islamique, un projet de réforme a été présenté. Ce projet vise à moderniser l’arbitrage dans toutes ses étapes. Dans cette optique, l’accent a été mis sur la convention d’arbitrage, le statut de l’arbitre, le droit applicable et la sentence arbitrale. Tout cela a été achevé par l’élaboration d’un projet de charte éthique de l’arbitrage en matière de finance islamique. Une fois modernisé et renouvelé, l’arbitrage peut devenir un pilier essentiel de l’industrie financière islamique, en participant efficacement à la promotion de cette activité. Avec une justice équitable, pratique, efficace, conforme à la Charia et adaptée, la finance islamique se trouve renforcée et consolidée