Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Notre travail, qui s’inscrit en droite ligne des recherches du CERCRID sur les marc consistait a étudier cette question, dans un secteur particulier. Il s’est agi d’aller au-delà du discours général sur les modes alternatifs de règlement des conflits, pour voir précisément ce qu’il en est en matière bancaire. La recherche du GIP droit et justice confiée au CERCRID, et portant sur la baisse générale du contentieux de l’impayé depuis le début des années 1990, a constitué un élément supplémentaire de notre champ d’investigation. A la conjonction de ces deux préoccupations principales, s’est greffée une grave crise économique mondiale née du crédit hypothécaire aux États-Unis d’Amérique. Tous ces facteurs nous ont conduit a nous intéresser à la prévention et au règlement du contentieux bancaire. Le travail a donc consiste en une large recherche sur le contentieux bancaire, le mot traitement ayant été choisi pour englober a la fois la prévention et le règlement. On comprend ainsi que le sens contextuel du mot traitement va au-delà de l’acception habituelle de ce terme. Trois principaux constats se dégagent de l’étude du contentieux bancaire : il s’agit d’une matière éminemment marquée du sceau de la prévention, d’une matière limitativement marquée du sceau de la médiation et de l’adjudication, d’une matière rarement marquée du sceau de l’arbitrage. La prévention du contentieux bancaire repose sur deux axes majeurs : la réduction des occasions de contentieux, ainsi que la limitation des espaces de discussion. La négociation précontentieuse apparait comme le mécanisme prééminent permettant d’éviter le litige et de régler les différends. En cas de litige, les parties peuvent saisir le médiateur bancaire. Il est également possible de recourir au juge. En cette matière, c’est essentiellement le juge étatique que les parties saisissent. Il va sans dire que l’arbitrage est rare, notamment du fait de l’absence d’imperium de l’arbitre.

La multifonctionnalité de l'agriculture est un sujet fondamental dans les négociattions du Cycle de Doha. Reconnaître cette multifonctionnalité de l'agriculture revient à lui assigner des fonctions non commerciales. Cette thèse se penche sur le droit de l'OMC pour voir s'il prend en compte le particularisme de l'agriculture. La première partie est consacrée au GATT de 1947. Elle montre que le GATT ne distinguait pas les produits agricoles des produits industriels. La seconde partie est consacrée à l'Accord sur l'agriculture de 1995 qui reconnaît à l'agriculture des fonctions non marchandes. Cette reconnaissance n'a pas de portée juridique réelle. La troisième partie est consacrée au Cycle de Doha. L'enjeu de ce Cycle réside dans la traduction de la multifonctionnalité en normes juridiques. Nonobstant les diverses propositions, l'issue de ces négocations est incertaine. Faute de réserver à la multifonctionnalité un traitement adéquat, l'OMC sera fragilisée et on assistera à une montée du bilatéralisme.

The focus of this study is the rights-based normative overlap of labour and administrative law in public employment. As the judiciary appeared to be unable to agree on a unified approach to the application of the rights to fair labour practices and just administrative action to public employment, it was clear that the complexity and multi-dimensional character of the debate required analysis of existing approaches to the regulation of the public employment relationship. The following initial research question was formulated: To what extent does (and should) the constitutionalised rights to fair labour practices (s 23) and just administrative action (s 33) simultaneously find application in the regulation of public employment relationships? In answering this question, certain realities had to be acknowledged, the most important being that the debate in question jurisprudentially revealed itself to be a jurisdictional turf-war between the Labour and High Courts, rather than proper consideration of the relevant substantive arguments and underlying normative considerations. This called for an additional dimension to be added to the research question, namely consideration of the extent to which the ss 23 and 33 rights are informed by variable and possibly different normative principles and whether these rights allow for cooperative regulation of public employment in accordance with the doctrine of interdependent fundamental rights. This became the primary focus of the study. In an attempt to simplify the debate, a deliberate decision was taken to limit the scope of the normative study to South Africa with its own historic influences, structures and constitutional considerations. The study shows that both labour and administrative law (as constitutionally informed) share concern for equity-based principles. This is evident from the flexible contextually informed perspectives of administrative law reasonableness in relation to labour law substantive fairness, as well as a shared concern for and approach to procedural fairness. Once simplified, and in the absence of any undue positive law complexity, the public employment relationship, at both a normative and theoretical level, furthermore shows no substantive status difference with private employment relationships. It is, however, accepted that there are job and sector-specific contextual differences. In the absence of substantive normative conflict between these branches of law and in the absence of a fundamental (as opposed to contextual) difference between public and private employment, there appears to be no reason to ignore the constitutional jurisprudential calls for hybridity, otherwise termed the doctrine of interdependence. The idea of normatively interdependent rights expresses the Constitution’s transformative vision (through the idea of flexible conceptual contextualism) and recognises that human rights may overlap. This also means that where such overlap exists, rights should be interpreted and applied in a mutually supportive and cooperative manner that allows for the full protection and promotion of those rights. In giving expression to the interdependent normative framework of constitutional rights, these norms (absent any substantive rights-based conflict) should then be used by the judiciary as an interpretative tool to align specific labour law and general administrative law in the regulation of public employment relationships.

Groups of companies are part of the realities of the modern economic system. Despite the fact that such groups often function as a single economic entity, the legal point of departure remains that each company within the group of companies is a separate juristic person. The result of this is that a creditor of a company within the group can, in principle, only enforce his claim against the company which he contracted with or which caused him harm. Should he wish to claim from the holding company or other solvent companies within the group, he would have to rely on an exception to the doctrine of separate juristic personality, viz the possibility of piercing the socalled corporate veil. This dissertation is a comparative study of the extent to which the law protects a creditor of an insolvent company within a group. The applicable laws of Australia, Germany, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States of America, were investigated and compared to the South African position. The dissertation concludes that the South African legal treatment of the problem is unsatisfactory and that the law should be amended through appropriate legislation.

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Comme dans presque tous les pays d'Afrique subsaharienne, la majorité de la population sénégalaise est rurale. Elle vit de l'agriculture ou d'activités qui en dépendent. Paradoxalement les investissements publics dans le secteur agricole restent très faibles, alors que l'insécurité alimentaire progresse. Pour faire face aux problèmes alimentaires, les pouvoirs publics multiplient les annonces de politiques agricoles, qui ne sont presque jamais suivies d'effets, parce que ne reposant pas sur des études précises et rigoureuses. Dans ce contexte, nous avons cherché à comprendre les stratégies développées par la petite paysannerie, les dynamiques qui animent les exploitations agricoles familiales pour faire reculer l'insécurité alimentaire en milieu rural, et dans quelle mesure celles-ci peuvent contribuer à la souveraineté alimentaire du Sénégal. Cette question appelle celle de l'accès à une nourriture suffisante et celle de sa production. Ainsi, à travers notre étude que nous avons intitulée « Dynamiques paysannes, souveraineté alimentaire et marché mondial des produits agricoles : l'exemple du Sénégal », nous cherchons à répondre à une série de questions : 1. Comment les paysans sénégalais produisent-ils les biens nécessaires à l'alimentation et l'entretien de leur famille ? 2. Comment les paysans sénégalais sont-ils organisés autour des questions de la vie rurale ? 3. Quelle est l'influence du marché mondial de produits agricoles et de ses règles établies par l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), sur la disponibilité et l'accès aux produits alimentaires ? De quelle façon les biens alimentaires importés concurrencent-ils la culture de biens agricoles qu'il est possible de produire localement ? Nous avons ainsi consacré une première partie de notre étude au procès de production et à son évolution. En dehors des conditions climatiques, le contrôle effectif par les paysans, des moyens de production et de la tenure foncière, détermine en grande partie, les volumes de biens agricoles et alimentaires produits, ainsi que leur accès. Dans une seconde partie, nous avons analysé l'émergence et l'évolution des modes d'organisation paysanne et examiné leur influence sur la satisfaction des besoins alimentaires et les orientations des politiques publiques en matière agricole. Enfin, dans une troisième partie, nous avons essayé de mesurer l'impact des règles du commerce international sur les productions locales de biens agricoles et alimentaires. Ce travail nous a permis de tirer un certain nombre de conclusions. La majorité des paysans du Sénégal ne parvient plus à produire le volume d'aliments de base nécessaires pour nourrir et entretenir leur famille. Les moyens de production ont relativement peu évolué au cours des dernières décennies, même si la culture attelée et l'introduction de nouveaux matériels ont considérablement amélioré les conditions de production et diminué la pénibilité du travail. L'outil de production s'est dégradé et ce qu'il en reste ne survit que grâce à l'habileté des forgerons ruraux. La recherche agronomique a permis d'obtenir des variétés homologuées de semences adaptées aux conditions pédologiques et climatiques. Mais elle demeure inefficace en ce sens que les moyens pour appliquer concrètement ses résultats sont absents et les paysans n'ont aucune maîtrise sur elle. Sur le plan du commerce international des produits agricoles, la faiblesse du Tarif extérieur commun (TEC) de la CEDEAO a eu pour conséquence l'augmentation des volumes d'importations de biens qui peuvent être produits localement. Les règles de l'OMC basées sur une conception ultralibérale du marché portent davantage préjudice aux produits agricoles et alimentaires de l'Afrique de l'Ouest. Sur un plan plus global, et à défaut de sortir l'agriculture des accords de l'OMC, il est possible de réclamer avec la CEDEAO, la mise en place d'un autre Accord sur l'agriculture qui redéfinirait le dumping de manière à protéger les pays les plus vulnérables.

Ces dernières années, le marché du jeu vidéo s’est grandement développé. Il touche des populations larges tant en terme d’âge, qu’en terme de nationalité. Ainsi, ce secteur constitue un poids non négligeable dans l’économie, puisque le chiffre d'affaires mondial issu de la vente de jeux vidéo devrait dépasser les 38 milliards d’euros en 2010. En France, bien que ce secteur génère un chiffre d’affaires de 4 milliards d’euros, avec de grands noms tels que GAMELOFT, ATARI, UNIVERSAL ou UBISOFT, il n’est pas offert aux intervenants du secteur de régime juridique clair ou univoque pour la création etl’exploitation de ce type d’oeuvre. Cette absence est à l’origine d’une perte de compétitivité de la France dans un marchémondialisé, où certains pays comme les Etat Unis offrent une sécurité propice à son développement. Elle entraine la fuite de projet à l’étranger et freine l’investissement. L’analyse amène donc à la proposition d’un régime propre appliqué aux jeux vidéo en matière de droit d’auteur. Certains jeux vidéo rassemblent au sein d’univers virtuels des dizaines de milliersd’utilisateurs, qui interagissent alors qu’ils se situent matériellement dans divers pays. Cette ouverture de l’espace de jeu, au départ individuel, à une communauté de joueurs, a profondément modifié la nature de ces jeux. A ce titre, ils soulèvent des questions relatives à leur régulation. Face au constat d’une autorégulation des univers virtuels, considérée comme despotique à l’aune des rapports déséquilibrés institués par les éditeurs et défaillante dans les rapports entre utilisateurs, il est envisagé de créer un cadre juridique spécifique aux univers virtuels.

Dans son sens originaire, le principe compétence-compétence permet au tribunal arbitral, comme à tout juge, de statuer sur sa compétence. En droit français, il s’est transformé en règle de conflit entre justice publique et justice privée doublement originale : d’une part, il repose sur l’exercice coordonné du pouvoir de juger de la compétence ; d’autre part, il est pluraliste. Enclenché par l’apparence vraisemblable d’une convention d’arbitrage, le principe compétence-compétence consiste en un mécanisme composite se déployant dans le temps du procès arbitral et dans l’espace des deux ordres juridiques considérés. Ainsi, trois règles distinctes permettent à chacune des justices – justice française et justice arbitrale – de connaître de sa propre compétence de manière coordonnée. Tout d’abord, en amont et en parallèle de l’instance arbitrale, l’effet négatif de la compétence-compétence paralyse le pouvoir des juridictions étatiques de statuer sur leur compétence. Ensuite, le temps du procès arbitral, l’effet positif de la compétence-compétence des tribunaux arbitraux reconnaît à ces derniers le pouvoir de juger de leur compétence. Enfin, au stade post-arbitral, l’effet positif de la compétence-compétence des juridictions publiques permet à ces dernières de retrouver le pouvoir de statuer sur leur compétence lors des recours ouverts contre la sentence. Chacune des règles examinées connait limites ou écueils. Parfois, l’équilibre est rompu soit au profit des juridictions d’Etat, soit au profit des juridictions arbitrales. Force est de constater que le caractère pluraliste du principe compétence-compétence est tantôt réalité, tantôt mirage.

L'objet de cette thèse est d'apprécier l'efficacité des procédures collectives d'un point de vue à la fois ex ante et ex post au regard de trois critères : leur efficacité financière, leur efficacité sociale et leur cohérence macroéconomique. Il s'agit d'une part d'analyser la trajectoire économique et financière du défaut et son traitement judiciaire afin de déterminer les coûts potentiels induits par les objectifs sociaux (la préservation de l'emploi) du droit français de la défaillance en termes de recouvrements pour les créanciers. Nous obtenons que, le traitement judiciaire du défaut est en France mis en oeuvre dans l'esprit des objectifs définis et hiérarchisés par la loi et que le tribunal entreprend des mesures afin de défendre non seulement les intérêts sociaux, mais également, une fois ceux-ci protégés, les intérêts financiers; ce résultat infirme notre hypothèse selon laquelle ces deux objectifs sont inconciliables. D'autre part, nous adoptons une approche Law and Finance afin de lier les codes de défaillance aux environnements nationaux. Nous proposons une appréciation du degré de cohérence macroéconomique du défaut, lequel constitue selon nous un élément de son efficacité.

Le mouvement progressiste de la mondialisation pose des exigences fortes sur les ports africains, comme le Sénégal, en termes de volumes et de la qualité des infrastructures, de la fréquence des opérations de dragage et de l'efficacité des ports. Cela est aisément compréhensible, du fait qu'une bonne politique de gestion portuaire est importante pour assurer l'efficacité du transport maritime d'un pays. L'objectif étant la compétitivité des ports. Seulement, au Sénégal, cet objectif n'est pas toujours facile à atteindre à cause de la difficile cohabitation entre service public et développement économique. En effet, la plupart des règlements régissant la gestion des ports fait référence au service public, instaurant du coup un mode de gestion étatique. Or, le développement économique fait plutôt intervenir des principes du droit privé. En outre, ces textes datant du lendemain de l'indépendance, se pose le problème de compatibilité entre les besoins réels et actuels du pays et l'efficacité de ces textes. Ainsi peut-on s'interroger sur la rentabilité de ce mode de gestion : le Sénégal est-il capable de protéger son domaine public portuaire et de le rentabiliser en même temps (au vu de ce qui se passe surtout dans les autres ports du pays) ? Ou devrait-il y avoir un autre mode de gestion qui, bien sûr, tiendra compte de l'intérêt du système ?

L'impressionnante évolution de l'industrie de la gestion au cours de ces quinze dernières années, notamment par l'utilisation des techniques de gestion ct de financements novatrices ainsi que le recours à des produits structurés de plus en plus complexes, a conduit l'industrie des d'OPCVM à vivre de profondes mutations. En effet, le caractère puhlic de l'épargne collective et le rôle stratégique que jouent les OPCVM en matière de sa canalisation vers le secteur productif, ont conduit le législateur à confier le contrôle de ces organismes à divers organes. L'efficacité, la productivité et la transparence sont de nos jours les maîtres mots dans les milieux financiers. Tous les opérateurs se trouvent dans l'obligation de mettre en œuvre des règles plus pertinentes et plus rigoureuses pour gagner cette bataille. L'étude du contrôle des OPCVM, revient à occulter l'un des principes essentiels des marchés financiers : la nécessité de sécurité et de confiance. En effet, les investisseurs ne s'engageront dans des placements financiers, que si les produits proposés offrent des garanties suffisantes. Cette confiance peut être établie par le contrôle exercé sur ces derniers, ce contrôle est réglementaire ou légale, il s'agit du commissaire aux comptes, en tant qu'organe classique des sociétés, le contrôle interne comme atout des OPCVM, le dépositaire comme organe original de ces derniers et enfin l'organe clef de la protection des marchés financiers qui est l'autorité de tutelle.

Uluslararası ticaretle ilgili alım satım sözleşmelerinde temel olan edimlerden birisi de ödeme dir. Türk hukuk sisteminde kullanıldığı şekli ile Vesaik mukabili ödeme uluslararası ticaretin önemli ödeme araçlarından birisidir.Uluslararası ticaret hukukunda bu konu hakkında tüm ülkeler açısından geçerli olan bir yasal düzenleme yoktur. Bu yüzden bazı örgütler, bu boşluğu doldurmayı amaçlamışlardır. Bu örgütlerden biri Uluslararası Ticaret Odası dır. Uluslararası Ticaret Odası, uluslar arası ticaretin yeknesak kurallara bağlanmasını amaç edinmiştir. Bunun için bazı broşürler yayınlamaktadır. Vesaik Mukabili Ödeme' ye ilişkin olarak, URC 522 kısaltmasıyla anılan, Tahsiller İçin Yeknesak Kurallar broşürünü yayınlamıştır. En son gözden geçirme çalışmaları 1995 yılında yapılmıştır. Bu yayının amacı, ortak dil ve anlayış birliğini sağlamak ve uluslar arası ticaretin daha hızlı, basit ve güvenli şekilde yürütülmesini gerçekleştirmektir.Türk hukuk sisteminde bu konuyu özel olarak düzenleyen bir yasa mevcut değildir. O yüzden uluslar arası ticaretle uğraşan kişilerin, vesaik mukabili ödeme yöntemini kullanarak ithalat-ihracat yapmak istediklerinde başvurabilecekleri kurallar URC 522 yayınıdır. Uluslararası ticarette taraflar URC 522 adıyla anılan yeknesak kuralların, kendi sözleşmelerine uygulanmasını sağlayabileceklerdir. Aksi durumda, yeknesak kurallar uygulanamayacaktır. Bu durumda, devletler özel hukuku kurallarına göre, söz konusu sözleşmeye uygulanacak hukukun tespiti gereklidir. Bu durumda ülkelerin milli hukuklarının, uluslar arası ticarete etkileri söz konusu olmaktadır. Yeknesak kuralların, kendiliğinden uygulanması söz konusu değildir.Uluslararası ticarette yeknesak kuralların varlığı olası problemleri en aza indirgemek açısından önemli ve gereklidir. […] One of the basic performances in international sale contract is payment. There are different types of payment methods in international trade law. Besides Letter of Credit Documents against payment? has an important place not only in Turkish export trade law but also in international business area.There is no current law arrangement about this payment method for all nations in international trade law. Therefore some organization have aimed to fill this legal loophole. One of this organizations is International Chamber of Commerce. This organization has aimed international trade to be tied with uniform rules. Therefore it has published some brochures. It has prepared and published Uniform Rules for Collections shortly called as URC 522 related documentary collections. Last revision was done in 1995. This brochure?s aim is to ensure common understanding and common language, and to be conducted more faster, guaranteed and easier of international trade.There are no special legal arrangement about this subject in Turkish legal system. Therefore, the actors who want to make export-import is mostly use the documents published in the brochure no URC 522.Parties of international trade can ensure application of the uniform rules called as URC 522 to their sales contracts. At the contrary case, uniform rules for collections is not applied. About this case, applicable law rules of Private International Law has to be determined to according contract. In such case, nations law regulations appear to effect in international trade. Uniform rules does not applicable per se.Existance of uniform rules in international trade is important and necessary for reducing possible problems.

Modern dönemde ticarî hayatta ortaya çıkan mübadele yöntemlerini İslâm ticaret hukuku açısından değerlendirebilmek ve İslâm'ın ticarî alandaki temel ilkelerine aykırı işlemlere alternatif yöntemler üretebilmek için öncelikle vahiy dönemindeki ticaret hukukunu tespit etmek gerekmektedir. Vahiy dönemindeki ticaret hukukunun sağlıklı bir şekilde anlaşılabilmesi ise dönemin ticarî kurallarının sosyolojik açıdan incelenmesini zorunlu kılmaktadır. Bu amaçla yapılan bu araştırmada ulaşılan sonuçları kısaca şu şekilde ifade etmek mümkündür:Cahiliye döneminde Hicaz bölgesinde sosyal hayat, bölgenin coğrafî yapısı ile dönemin siyasî ve dinî şartları etkisi altında sürdürülmüştür. Yeni bir yaşam biçiminin hedeflendiği vahiy döneminde toplumsal hayatın bütün ünitelerinde değişikliğe gidilmiş, Hicazlılar'ın iktisadî tecrübe ve ihtiyaçları göz önünde bulundurularak yeni bir ticaret hukuku oluşturulmuştur. Mekke devrinde, Hz. Peygamber kanun koyup uygulayacak siyasî güce sahip olmadığı için, hayatın diğer alanlarında olduğu gibi ticaret hukuku alanında da temel ahlâkî değerler müslüman tebaaya benimsetilmeye çalışılmakla yetinilmiştir. Hicretten sonra Medine'de siyasî ve askerî bakımdan yeterli güce kavuşulunca ekonomik sisteme müdahale edilmeye başlanmıştır. Bir önceki dönemden devralınan ticarî kurum ve işlemler adalet eksenli yeni hukukî ve ahlâkî kurallara göre değerlendirilmeye tabi tutulmuştur. Ticaret hayatında yapılan değişiklikler içtimaî kurallara uygun bir şekilde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Yeni hukukî düzenlemelerin kargaşaya meydan vermemesi için gerekli görülen konularda tedricî yöntem uygulanmış ve alternatif uygulamalar devreye sokulmuştur. Öte yandan toplumsal yapıyı oluşturan diğer kurumlarda gerçekleştirilen değişiklikler de yeni ticaret hukukunun kolaylıkla topluma mal edilmesinde oldukça etkili olmuştur. […] Occurring in the commercial life of modern methods of exchange, to assess in terms of commercial law of Islam, and contrary to the fundamental principles of commercial transactions in the field of Islam in order to produce alternative methods, primarily trade law to determine the required period of revelation. Revelation during the period of commercial law in a healthy way to understand the rules of trade requires a review of the sociological perspective. For this purpose, the results achieved in this study, it is possible to briefly stated as follows:The period of ignorance of social life in the Hijaz, the region's geographical structure and the period continued under the influence of political and religious conditions. Revelation in a new way of life, social life aimed to change all the units were made, considering the economic needs of the people of Hijaz experience and created a new trade law. Mecca during the reign of the Prophet put the law does not have the power to implement the political, as in other areas of life in the field of commercial law to teach basic moral values were muslims. After the migration, the strength is reached Medina, the political and military respects, the economic system started to intervene. Commercial institutions and processes inherited from the previous period, according to the rules of justice-oriented evaluation has been subject to new legal and moral. Changes to trade in his life was carried out in accordance with social rules. New legal challenge to prevent confusion in the arrangements, gradual method is applied to matters deemed necessary and alternative practices were introduced. On the other hand, changes in social structure in the new trade law is easily performed by other institutions in society to be the goods have been quite effective.

This thesis addresses issues of the Niger Delta question which represents one of the most intractable sources of socio-political destabilization in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The study is on the intricate dynamics amongst the Nigerian state, the transnational oi l corporations, the oil producing communities and the insurgent militia conflict. It investigates and explicates the "paradox of plenty" and the "resource curse", the "absentee government" and "state capture" and the debilitating effects of petroleum politics in Nigeria. The economic exploitation of the Niger Delta region's vast crude oil reserves by transnational oil corporations and government authorities is juxtaposed with the spectre of environmental degradation, human rights violations, and the recurrent rule of impunity. The protracted problems of the Niger Delta region thus, provide us with a pertinent analytical and contextual framework for the study of the dynamics and issues of transparency in other African petro-dollar states. It is argued in this study that the Niger Delta crisis is a conflict of values and fight for resources arising from decades of unacceptable standards of oil exploration and the absentee character of the Nigerian State . By its very nature, the study called for a qualitative approach, supplemented by unstructured interviews using aide memoirs with selected officials, on the basis of their innate knowledge of the subject matter. The legal comparative research method, with a historic component also played an integral role in this study. Some key findings and conclusions: 1. The study found that the Niger Delta crisis graduated from mere political agitations for state creation and provision of social amenities to extreme acts of hostage-taking and a twist of violence as a result of treating a major problem affecting the development of the Niger Delta people with levity for too long a period. 2. The study found that the on-going crisis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is a conflict of values and fight for resources amongst the oil-bearing people of the Niger Delta, transnational oil corporations and the Nigerian Government. 3. The study established some causal nexus between oil and poverty; oil and corruption; and, oil and human rights abuses. 4. That, the Niger Delta crude oil conflict is essentially a manifestation of state capture and inertia on the part of the Nigerian Government. 5. The study found that the Niger Delta economies are "criminalized" and are often characterized by conditions of anarchy and impunity. And this disorder is embedded in the dynamics of resource extraction, the nature and role of "shadow" state actors, as well as the interplay and patterns of relationships between organized criminal syndicates and the transnational oil corporations in the host communities. The study recommends, inter alia: I. That steps be taken by government to re-define its philosophy of national economic development from a state-driven to citizens-driven philosophy. To this end, Nigeria must seek to develop by developing its citizens, the aggregate of whose satisfactory living conditions should form the criteria for measuring national development. II . That effort must be made to steer the nation towards proper fiscal federalism. The present "food is ready" economy whereby federating units are enslaved to national "cake sharing" instead of value generation, discourages entrepreneurship and sustainable development. It promotes undue dependency on petroleum products, inequity and ethnic distrust. Ill. That Nigeria needs productive resource control, not just development in the sense of house and bridge building. What is needed is a noticeable leap in the standard of living in the Niger Delta. Thus, people and not federal accounts must be the object of improvement. IV. It is recommended that government should ensure robust, independent and co-ordinated oversight of the oil industry including its impact on human rights. V. Transnational oil corporations should undertake full corporate social responsibility and comprehensive assessment of the social and human rights impacts of all oil and gas projects, ensuring that adequate information is provided to affected individuals and communities and that the process is transparent. VI. It is strongly recommended that an Oil Pollution Liability Trust Fund should be established by the Federal Government in concert with oil companies. The fund will be made up of a percentage of tax levied on oil companies and a percentage of earnings of the Federal Government from oil. The fund should be used in ameliorating the conditions of the impacted environment and people. It is hoped that these findings and recommendations will go a long way in the quest for significant environmental and social improvements in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria.

The advent of Internet and digital technologies has radically transformed the way information is being produced and consumed. The consequences for copyright law are twofold. While digital media provide new opportunities for authors to produce and disseminate their works to the public, they simultaneously encourage and facilitate copyright infringement. Traditionally, in order to ensure compliance with the law, the copyright regime could rely upon the properties of physical media to constitute a natural barrier against copyright infringement. As the medium went digital, however, its properties became a catalyst for infringement. Designed for the physical world, the structure of the copyright does not adequately address the issues inherent to digital media. Private regulation therefore came into play in order to resolve the problem. While restrictive licensing agreements combined with technological measures of protection purport to reestablish a technological barrier against copyright infringement, permissive licenses such as Creative Commons purport to reduce the scope of protection granted by default under the law. Although differing in method, these approaches share a common goal: to realign the properties of the work with the properties of the digital medium by readjusting the legal attributes and technical characteristics of digital copies. As a legal concept, however, the notion of a copy must be precisely defined. After performing an ontological analysis of the copyright regime within the scope of the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records and the Information Artifact Ontology, the research concludes that physical copies fundamentally differ from their digital counterpart. While the former qualify as a token, the latter qualify as a class that is capable of multiple instantiations. Moreover, given that the identity of a digital copy can no longer be defined by its physical characteristics, it is fundamentally for the copyright license to determine the scope of the copy to which it refers.

This thesis, exploring the rule of law for international rules, offers a human bond of common good between determinacy of substance and legitimacy of structure of rules in order to evaluate international obligations of States in international law on foreign investment. In an in-depth exposition of the theoretical underpinnings and practices underlying the normative structure of rules in international law, the thesis critically questions the legal reasoning embedded in—and the authority of rules borrowed from—principles and precedents or moral and political evaluations by arbitrators in interpretation of States' contractual, customary, and treaty obligations in investment arbitrations. With crucial moral, political, social and economic ramifications for the constitutional functions of States and concomitant interests of their human members implicated in the concept of expropriation in international law, the thesis provides a framework of legitimacy in a common good approach with structural criteria of recognition and coherence for the interpretation of States' obligations in investment arbitration. Coherence brings to the fore conflicting demands of justice requiring fresh evaluation divesting a general rule of its authoritative force, and recognition brings to the fore the validation of the power to engage in moral and political evaluation. Together, these structural criteria offer a common good approach of legitimacy to test the authority of States' obligations and the power of arbitrators in hard cases. By virtue of these criteria, the thesis characterizes the nature of substantive property rights of corporations and corresponding obligations of States in foreign investment as contingent and consensual in contrast with the absolute and constitutional rights of human beings in human rights. Through coherence and recognition, the thesis also portrays a supreme status for customary international law for the normative structure and substance of States' contractual or treaty obligations in the interpretation of hard cases in international law on foreign investment. The thesis espouses a new horizon for legal reasoning in foreign investment arbitration that eschews the lex lata veneer for lex ferenda propositions manufactured from precedents and principles, on the one hand, and the sheen of law for the conception of justice of investor-State arbitrators, on the other, in cases of hard confrontation between the demands of justice.

No início do novo milênio, a formação de blocos econômicos regionais foi-se apresentando como estratégia de promoção do desenvolvimento para os países periféricos. Tratando-se da África Ocidental, a integração de seus pequenos países com vista a usufruir as vantagens decorrentes desse processo resulta em última instância, a solução potencial de seus diversos problemas, e a resposta da sua marginal posição na atual globalização. São países que enfrentam malformações estruturais e situações dramáticas de pobreza e miséria produto de séculos de exploração, repartição desinteressada e agressiva de seus territórios a beneplácito da acirrada competência imperialista e da colonização posterior. Neste sentido, esta tese propõe responder duas perguntas: quais as causas do estabelecimento de uma união econômica e monetária numa região sem condições prévias e se esta integração está conduzindo ou não a seus países ao desenvolvimento. A mesma parte da hipótese de a integração regional na atualidade ser a alternativa mais viável para garantir a sustentabilidade do processo de desenvolvimento nesta região. O objetivo da tese é analisar a dinâmica regional da integração da UEMOA, que surgiu contrária à visão convencional das teorias monetárias, como estratégia do desenvolvimento, e em seguida, vincular seus resultados ao desenvolvimento econômico dos países da região. Ressalta-se que foi dada prioridade a literatura africana, não por rechaço ou demérito da produção ocidental sobre o tema, mas pelo entendimento de que, neste aspecto específico, as opiniões dos autores africanos dariam um melhor enriquecimento e uma visão mais realista sobre o tema. Conclui-se que independentemente de não seguir as diretrizes convencionais, a integração da UEMOA está sendo fundamental para o desenvolvimento de seus países, segundo a realidade da região. Portanto, sua análise deve ser realizada acorde a especificidade local, sem esquecer as conseqüências do seu passado histórico que ainda repercutem negativamente na sua situação socioeconômico. Ou seja, sua valoração não deve seguir o modelo das regiões desenvolvidas ou emergentes, mas sim desde a perspectiva das duras realidades da região.

Kurumların birleşme, bölünme, kısmi bölünme ve hisse değişimi yoluyla yeniden yapılandırılma işlemleri başta ticaret hukuku olmak üzere, rekabet hukuku, sermaye piyasası hukuku ve vergi hukuku gibi birçok hukuk dalını ilgilendiren çok disiplinli bir alandır. Ticaret hukuku, genel olarak yeniden yapılandırma işlemlerinde şirket alacaklarının ve ortaklarının haklarının korunmasını amaçlamaktayken, vergi hukuku söz konusu işlemler sonucunda ortaya çıkan kâr ile ilgilenmektedir. Yeniden yapılanma işlemlerin vergisel maliyeti, bunların önündeki en önemli engeli teşkil etmektedir. Bu sebeple, tüm hukuk sistemlerinde vergisel açıdan tarafsızlığı sağlayıcı hükümler yer almaktadır.Çalışmamızda, özellikle, üye devletler arasındaki ekonomik ilişkilerin artırılarak, ekonomik gelişmenin ve refahın sağlanması yoluyla güçlü bir topluluk yaratma amacı taşıyan Avrupa Birliği Hukuku ve Türk Hukukunda yeniden yapılandırma işlemlerinin vergisel boyutu incelenmiştir. Avrupa Birliği Mevzuatına uyum sağlama çalışmaları çerçevesinde dolaysız vergiler alanında yapılması gereken düzenlemelerden birisi de vergi kanunlarında şirketlerin bölünmesini ve hisse değişimini kolaylaştırıcı, kalıcı mahiyette hükümler getirmek olmuştur. Dolayısıyla Avrupa Birliği Birleşme mevzuatı, tam üyelik sürecindeki ülkemiz açısından önem arz etmektedir.Çalışmamızın birinci bölümünde birleşme, bölünme, kısmi bölünme ve hisse değişimi müesseselerinin kavramsal esasları, Kurumlar Vergisi Kanunu, Türk Ticaret Kanunu ve Yeni Türk Ticaret Kanunu ile ilgili Avrupa Birliği mevzuatı çerçevesinde ortaya konulmaya çalışılacaktır. İkinci bölümde, birleşme, bölünme, kısmi bölünme, aktif transferi ve hisse değişimine ilişkin temel Avrupa Birliği düzenlemesi olan Birleşme Direktifi, Avrupa Birliği Adalet Divanı kararları çerçevesinde incelenecektir. Son bölümde ise Türk vergi mevzuatındaki, birleşme, bölünme ve hisse değişimine ilişkin hükümler tereddütlü noktalara da değinilmek suretiyle ele alınacaktır. Sonuç bölümünde birleşme, bölünme, kısmi bölünme ve hisse değişimi müesseselerine ilişkin değerlendirmelerimize yer verilmiştir. Transactions concerning the restructuring of companies through mergers, divisions, partial divisions and exchanges of shares relate to a multi disciplinary domain, including commercial law, competition law, capital markets law and tax law. While commercial law generally aims at the protection of rights of company?s creditors and shareholders, tax law is mostly interested with the profit generated through these transactions. The tax cost of restructuring transactions, constitutes the main obstacle for those. For this reason, all legal systems include provisions providing tax neutrality regarding these transactions.In this study, we have analysed the tax law dimension of restructuring transactions especially in Turkish Law and Law of European Union which aims at the creation of a strong community through the development of economic relations between member states. Within the context of harmonisation to the European Union Legislation, one of the necessary regulations concerning direct taxes has been the enactment of tax law provisions enabling the division of companies and exchanges of shares thereof. Consequently, EU Merger Legislation is of utmost importance for Turkey as a candidate state.The first chapter of this study presents the conceptual basis of the transactions in question within the context of Corporate Tax Law, Commercial Law and the New Commercial Law and EU Legislation. The second chapter examines the Merger Directive within the framework of jurisprudences of European Court of Justice. The last chapter deals with problematic issues in Turkish Tax and Commercial laws. We conclude by presenting our evaluations based on previous chapters.

Haksız rekabet hukuku, ticarî hayatın gerektirdiği dürüstlüğü sağlamak ve rekabet etme serbestîsini bu yönden sınırlamak amacıyla ortaya çıkmıştır. İlk olarak, haksız rekabet eyleminden zarar gören rakiplerin menfaatleri(ekonomik kişilikleri) korunmuştur. Daha sonra, rakibin kişiliği ile doğrudan bağlantısı bulunmayan ve hattâ rakip olmayanların menfaatlerinin de(müşteri, tüketici) zarar görebildiği farklı haksız rekabet eylemlerinin ortaya çıkması neticesinde, dürüst rekabetin temin edilmesinde, sadece rakiplerin değil; toplumun(tüketici dahil) da menfaatinin bulunduğu kabul edilmiştir. Bu yaklaşım, haksız rekabet hukuku ile korunan menfaat çevresinin genişlemesine zemin oluşturmuştur.Kartel kanunlarının etkisiyle, haksız rekabet hukukunun da tıpkı rekabetin korunması hukuku gibi, rekabet serbestisini ve rekabeti kurum olarak koruduğu, bu sebeple, ekonomik düzenin gerçekleşmesine katkıda bulunduğu ve ekonomi politikaları ile ilgisinin olduğu ileri sürülmüş ve uygulama alanının genişletilmesi önerilmişse de, bu görüşler kalıcı olamamıştır.Haksız rekabet ile ilgili düzenlemelerin(1986 tarihli İsviçre Haksız Rekabete Karşı Kanunu, 2004 tarihli Alman Haksız Rekabet Kanunu ve Temmuz 2012'de yürürlüğe girecek olan 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu'nun haksız rekabetle ilgili hükümleri) amacı, tüm ilgililerin lehine dürüst ve bozulmamış rekabeti temin etmektir. "Bozulmamış rekabet" kavramından, piyasa ekonomisi kurumu olarak rekabetin bozulması anlaşılmamalıdır. Haksız rekabet hukuku, dürüstlük kurallarına aykırı davranışın, ilgili mal ya da hizmetin tedavülü ile bağlantısı olan çevrelerin pazar davranışını ve böylelikle pazara katılanlar arasındaki ilişkileri etkileyip etkilemediği ile ilgilenir. Davranışın ya da kullanılan yöntemin, salt aldatıcı nitelikte olmasından hareketle haksız rekabet teşkil ettiği söylenemez. Bu nedenle, haksız rekabetle ilgili düzenlemelerin amacının, pazara katılanlar bakımından dürüst ve bozulmamış rekabetin temini olarak yorumlanması gerektiğini düşünüyoruz.Öte yandan, belli bir pazar gücüne sahip teşebbüslerin, piyasa yapısı üzerinde, rekabeti bütünüyle ya da önemli ölçüde ortadan kaldırabilecek düzeydeki uygulamaları, haksız rekabet hukukunun uygulama alanı içerisinde değerlendirilemez. Pazar gücünün denetimi ve piyasa yapısının korunması, münhasıran rekabetin korunması hukukunun konularıdır. Dolayısıyla, haksız rekabet hukuku ve rekabetin korunması hukuku, farklı açılardan rekabet kurumunun korunmasına hizmet etmektedir. Unfair competition law aims at assuring fairness in commercial affairs and restricting the freedom of competition from this respect. Firstly, the interests(the economic personality) of competitors who were damaged by the unfair competition act were protected. Next, as a result of different unfair competition acts which are not directly related to the personality of the competitor and even by which the interests of non-competitors might be damaged(client, consumer), it has been accepted that not only the competitors, but, also the public(including consumer) has an interest on the assurance of fair competition. This approach has established a basis for the enlargement of the scope of protected interests.Under the influence of cartel laws, it has been claimed that, like competition law, unfair competition law protects the freedom of competition and the competition itself as an institution and therefore, unfair competition law contributes to the settlement of economic order and has a relation with economy policies and its scope of application should be extended. Nonetheless, this idea did not remain.The aim of the unfair competition rules(Swiss Code Against Unfair Competition, German Act Against Unfair Competition and the provisions on unfair competition of Turkish Commercial Code which shall enter into force by July 2012) is in favour of all concerned parties, to assure fair and undistorted competition. By the concept of "undistorted competition", it should not be understood the distortion of competition as an institution of market economy. Unfair competition law is concerned with whether the unfair conduct influences or not the market behaviour of the milieu, which is related to the exchange of the concerned good or service, and eventually the relations between market participants. The conduct or the applied method could not be qualified as unfair competition, solely by its deceptive nature. For this reason, the aim of the unfair competition rules should be interpreted as the assurance of fair and undistorted competition with respect to the market participants.However, the practices of enterprises with certain market power, which could annihilate, completely or to a considerable extent, the competition in the market could not be treated in scope of unfair competition law. The control of market power and the protection of market structure are exclusively the matters of competition law. Therefore, unfair competition law and competition law serve to the protection of competition as an institution from different aspects.