Bibliographie sélective OHADA

This thesis focuses on the interaction of two categories of non-state actors, private sector corporate actors and non-governmental organizations, with states in the context of the World Trade Organization (WTO) through a lens of public international law. It builds on the premise that the notion of states as the only subjects of international law is not adequate for a modern system of global governance, as it does not reflect the realities of fast-paced globalization and increased co-operation in a world where the boundaries of the private and public are increasingly blurred. It does not necessarily provide solutions for participation of non-state actors in the WTO, but demonstrates that developments in international relations warrant more space for participation of non-state actors, and that the current system of the WTO fails to provide sufficient space for participation. The thesis argues that, for both historical and pragmatic reasons, developments in the areas of GATT and international trade law occurred outside their natural course, leading to the myth of a “self-contained” trade regime not part of public international law. The WTO, unlike its predecessor, enjoys a proper institutional framework and mandate; one can no longer use the excuse of institutional handicap for excluding it from the system of global governance. Liberalization of international trade has far-reaching consequences which are not limited to the trade arena and the WTO, its member states, and scholars of international trade law have to assume their role in the broader context of an international legal order. Non-state actors’ formal participation can contribute to striking a balance between different forces and interests at work in the area of trade liberalization and its interplay with other non-trade issues. After setting the framework for the study, the thesis outlines modes of participation of non-state actors in the creation and modification of WTO law as well as in its enfor

Face à l’urgence de diminuer les dépenses de santé, le développement des médicaments génériques, moins chers que les médicaments de marque, a été fortement encouragé tant par les institutions communautaires que par les pouvoirs publics nationaux. Le droit de la concurrence accompagne et protège le bon développement des marchés de ces produits. Les règles de concurrence protégent aussi bien la liberté de la concurrence que les intérêts individuels des opérateurs sur ces marchés. La sauvegarde de la liberté de la concurrence est assurée notamment par la sanction de certaines stratégies, adoptées par les laboratoires innovants, qui découragent ou retardent indûment l’entrée des génériques sur le marché. Les intérêts individuels des opérateurs sont préservés notamment par la possibilité d’agir en concurrence déloyale. L’application des règles de concurrence n’est cependant pas aisée et suscite bien des interrogations. L’éventuelle application des règles communautaires relatives aux aides d’Etat à certaines mesures favorisant les génériques au détriment des princeps ou encore la problématique de l’équilibre entre les règles de concurrence et celles de propriété industrielle sont autant de questions qui seront tranchées par les autorités et les juridictions dans les mois et années à venir. Dans les relations entre les médicaments génériques et le droit de la concurrence, les premiers ont aussi un rôle à jouer car ils contribuent non seulement à l’élargissement du champ d’application de ce droit mais également à son évolution à travers notamment l’identification de nouvelles pratiques abusives.

Türk Ticaret Kanunu'nda, ultra vires doktrininin etkisiyle, ticaret şirketlerinin ehliyetlerinin işletme konusuyla sınırlandırılması ölçütüne yer verilmiştir. Buna göre TTK.'nun 137. maddesinde ticaret şirketlerinin ehliyetinin işletme konusu çevresiyle sınırlı olduğu kabul edilmiştir. Anonim şirketlerin ehliyeti de TTK. m. 137 kapsamında işletme konusu çevresiyle sınırlandırılmıştır.İşletme konusu, ana sözleşmede yer alan ve şirketin faaliyet göstereceği iş alanlarını somut olarak ortaya koyan bir kavramdır. Sınırlı ehliyet ilkesinin sakıncalarını gidermek amacıyla işletme konusu kavramını geniş yorumlamak ve işletme konusu kapsamındaki faaliyetleri kolaylaştırmak adına yapılan işlem ve faaliyetleri işletme konusundan saymak gerekmektedir.Anonim şirketlerin ehliyetlerinin kapsam ve sınırları, anonim şirket temsilcilerinin yetkilerinin kapsam ve sınırlarını belirlemesi bakımından da önem taşımaktadır. Anonim şirketin ehliyetinin ve buna bağlı olarak temsilcilerinin yetkilerinin kapsam ve sınırlarının belirlenmesi, anonim şirket ortaklarının, alacaklılarının ve kamu menfaatinin korunması amacına da hizmet etmektedir.Ticaret şirketlerinin ve buna bağlı olarak anonim şirketlerin ehliyet dışı işlemleri, öğretide yer alan baskın görüşe göre yok hükmündedir. Ehliyet dışı yapılan işlemin yok hükmünde kabul edilmesi, bu işlemin hiç doğmadığı ve sonradan onay vermekle bu işleme geçerlilik kazandırılamayacağı anlamındadır.Ticaret şirketlerinin ve dolayısıyla anonim şirketlerin ehliyetinin işletme konusu çevresi ile sınırlandırılması ultra vires doktrini olarak ifade edilmektedir. Ultra vires doktrini İngiliz hukuku kaynaklı olup, şirketler hukuku bakımından şirketlerin hukuki ehliyetinin ana sözleşmelerinde yazılı olan konularıyla sınırlandırılması temeline dayanmaktadır. Günümüzde ultra vires doktrini terk edilmiştir. Nitekim Türk Ticaret Kanunu Tasarısı'nın ticaret şirketlerinin ehliyetini düzenleyen 125. maddesinde ultra vires doktrininin yansıması olan işletme konusu çevresiyle sınırlı ehliyet ilkesine yer verilmemiş olup ultra vires doktrininin yarattığı sakıncaları önlemek adına olumlu bir adım atılmıştır. [...] The rule of limited capacity of companies in the frame of the objects clause, was given a place in the Turkish Commercial Code with effect of ultra vires doctrine. According to this, Article 137 of the Turkish Commercial Code stipulates that capacity of companies are limited in frame of the objects clause of the companies. Capacity of incorporated companies are also limited in frame of the objects clause according to Article 137 of the Turkish Commercial Code.Objects clause is a concept which takes place in the memorandum and which shows scope of the company. In order to remove inconveniences of principle of limited capacity, the transactions and activities made for widely interpreting the concept of objects clause and facilitating the activities in the cover of objects clause, are assumed in the frame of objects clause.Contents and limits of capacity of incorporated companies are significant with regard to defining contents and limits of power of directors of incorporated companies. Defining contents and limits of capacity of incorporated companies and whereupon defining content and limits of power of directors also serve the purpose of protecting share holders and creditors of incorporated companies and public interest Companies? transactions and whereupon incorporated companies? transactions, which are out of capacity are nul and void according to the dominant idea in the doctrine. Assuming the transactions that exceed the capacity of company as nul and void means that this transactions were never made and that further approving such transaction would not make it valid. Limited capacity of companies and whereupon of incorporated companies in frame of objects clause is called ultra vires doctrine. Ultra vires doctrine is of English Law origin and based on the limitation of capacity of the companies by the objects clause of the memorandum, with regard to the law of companies. Today, ultra vires doctrine is relinquished. As a matter of fact, Article 125 of the Scheme of Turkish Commercial Code regulating capacity of the companies did not give place the limited capacity principle which is a reflection of the ultra vires doctrine and took an important step in order to avoid the drawbacks of ultra vires doctrine.

My main theoretical contention is that status hierarchies provide a source of guidance to firms for resolving disputes. A status hierarchy implies a system of deference rules among firms. When disputes arise, deference rules can provide a basis for shared expectations and protocols of conduct about how technical ambiguities should be resolved. In many contexts, technical merit is difficult to assess. However, deference rules can operate as social conventions to which firms default, helping to align potentially incompatible expectations. Within this general framework, my dissertation examines how competitors in the semiconductor industry manage uncertain and frequently overlapping patent rights. In practice, patent rights are highly imperfect legal instruments when it comes to demarcating each firm's contributions to innovation in the industry. Patent disputes arise because of the ambiguity this creates about how much of the collective market returns to innovation each firm is entitled to receive. Despite the prolific patenting and propensity for disputes, the industry has remarkably not ground to a halt from runaway litigation. Litigation events, while significant, are rare. I suggest that this degree of order is, at least partly, attributable to status processes. Status can operate as a stabilizing force in the market, helping to generate orderly competition in the face of disputes. To examine whether this is the case in the semiconductor industry, I theorize that disputes are less easily resolved when the parties involved face greater status ambiguity, i.e. are less clearly differentiated from one another in status. Under status ambiguity, deference rules lose the rule-like, universal quality that makes them persuasive in resolving disputes. This has two consequences. First, firms facing low status ambiguity are less likely to be involved in patent litigation than are firms facing high status ambiguity. Patent litigation events represent failures to resolve patent disputes out of court. Second, firms facing low status ambiguity increase their product line sizes more than do firms facing high status ambiguity. The threat of difficult-to-resolve patent disputes represents a cost that can deter firms from bringing products to market.

Menkul kıymetleştirme düzenli nakit akışı sağlayan alacakların likit hale getirilmesi esasına dayanan bir finansman yöntemidir. Bu yöntemde, finansman ihtiyacı içinde olan şirket, düzenli nakit akışı sağlayan alacaklarını özel amaçlı kuruluşa devreder. Alacakları devralan özel amaçlı kuruluş, bu alacakları karşılık göstererek menkul kıymet ihraç eder. Menkul kıymeti satın alan yatırımcılara, vadesi geldiğinde anapara ve faiz ödemeleri, havuzdaki alacaklardan sağlanan gelirlerle yapılır. Böylece, alacakların ilk sahibi olan kaynak şirket, alacaklarının vadesini beklemeden nakit ihtiyacını gidermiş olurken, ihraç edilen menkul kıymeti satın alan yatırımcılar da, güvenilirliği yüksek ve şirketin risklerinden arındırılmış bir alacaklar topluluğunun güvencesi altında sağlam bir yatırım yapmış olurlar.5582 sayılı Kanunun temelinde de, menkul kıymetleştirme yöntemi kullanılarak, konut finansmanı sisteminin ikincil piyasa ayağını oluşturma düşüncesi vardır. Bu kapsamda, ipotekli konut kredilerinin menkul kıymetleştirilmesi sonucunda ihraç edilecek ipotek teminatlı menkul kıymetler ve ipoteğe dayalı menkul kıymetler düzenlenmiştir. İpotek teminatlı menkul kıymetler bir bilanço içi menkul kıymetleştirme özelliği gösterirken, ipoteğe dayalı menkul kıymetler bilanço dışı menkul kıymetleştirme niteliğine sahiptir. Her iki menkul kıymet türünde de, menkul kıymet sahiplerinin korunmasına azami şekilde özen gösterilmiş ve her durumda menkul kıymet sahiplerinin alacaklarını almalarına öncelik verilmiştir. İflasın teminat varlıklara menfi bir etkisinin olması her iki menkul kıymet türünde kanun hükmüyle engellenmiş, gerek teminat havuzu gerek fon portföyü dokunulmaz bir statüye kavuşturulmuştur.Aynı Kanunda, varlık teminatlı menkul kıymetler ve varlığa dayalı menkul kıymetler yoluyla, ipotekli konut kredileri dışındaki alacak çeşitlerinin de menkul kıymetleştirilmesi kabul edilmiştir.Sonuç olarak, menkul kıymetleştirme günümüzün vazgeçilmez finansman metotlarından biridir. Ancak menkul kıymetleştirmeden beklenen faydaların sağlanabilmesi, ana prensiplerine riayet edilerek uygulanmasına bağlıdır. Securitization is a method based on liquidation of receivables enabling regular cash flow. In this method, the company in need of financing transfers such receivables to special purpose vehicle. The special purpose vehicle which take over the receivables issues securities by assuring them. On due the capital and interest payments to the investors purchasing securities are made by the income acquired from the receivables in pool. Therefore, while the company, the originator of receivables, solve the problem of liquidity without waiting for the receivables?s due, the investors make a safe invesment under the assurance of a community of receivables that is highly secure and free of credit risk.On the basis of the Law 5582, there?s also the idea of forming the secondary part of housing finance system by using securitization method. Within this framework, mortgage covered bonds and mortgage backed securities have been regulated, both of which are issued as a result of securitization of residential mortgage loans. Mortgage covered bonds display a characteristic of on-balance sheet, while mortgage backed securities have off-balance sheet property.In both types of securities, utmost great pains to protect securities owners is taken and that securities owners are satisfied under any circumstances is of high priority. Bankruptcy?s negative effect on cover assets is impeded with a law article, thus both cover pool and fund portfolio acquire an immune statute.In the same Law, other types of receivables except residential mortgage loans might be securitised is acknowledged through asset covered bonds and asset backed securities.Consequently, today, securitization is one of indispensible way of financing. However, that expected benefits from securitization can be obtained is possible provided that it is performed with respect to main principles.

La presente tesis doctoral analiza la ordenación del mercado, las relaciones contractuales y la responsabilidad de los diferentes sujetos que intervienen en la utilización de aquellos vagones de mercancías que son explotados económicamente de forma duradera por una persona que no tenga la consideración de empresa ferroviaria (vagones particulares). <br>A tal efecto se examina la legislación nacional, internacional y supranacional aplicable, la financiación y homologación del material rodante ferroviario, así como el marco contractual en el que se desenvuelve el empleo de dichos vagones para efectuar transportes de mercancías por ferrocarril, prestando especial atención al llamado Contrato Uniforme de Utilización, un contrato marco que, salvo pacto en contrario, fija el contenido de las futuras relaciones entre empresas ferroviarias y poseedores de vagones particulares. Sobre la base del tenor de sus cláusulas se estudia la naturaleza jurídica que reviste el concreto contrato de utilización del vagón, las obligaciones de las partes y la responsabilidad que incumbe a cada una de ellas en caso de daños en el vagón o causados por éste a la contraparte en el contrato o a terceros.

La protection de l’emploi se définit comme la réglementation encadrant les règles d’embauche et les modalités de licenciement des salariés et trouve ses sources dans la législation, les négociations collectives ou encore les décisions de justice. Depuis une quinzaine d’années, une vaste littérature macroéconomique a investi les effets de la protection de l’emploi sur les performances du marché du travail, ou plus précisément les effets des modalités de licenciement sur le taux d’emploi, la durée et le taux de chômage. Des travaux plus récents commencent à mettre en relief d’autres conséquences de la protection de l’emploi, à savoir ses répercussions en termes d’incitations sur le comportement des individus : confrontés à une certaine réglementation de l’emploi en matière de licenciement, les agents économiques s’adaptent, réagissent et adoptent des comportements stratégiques. Cette thèse s’inscrit dans l’ensemble de ces travaux en explorant les incitations individuelles générées par la législation du travail. En effet, le droit du travail relatif au licenciement et sa mise en uvre par les tribunaux ont des conséquences sur le comportement des parties à la relation de travail et ce, à plusieurs niveaux. D’une part, les modalités de licenciement ont un impact ex ante sur les niveaux d’investissements respectifs de l’employeur et du salarié au sein de leur relation : en effet, la façon dont les tribunaux jugent un litige consécutif à un licenciement et notamment les éléments pris en compte dans leurs décisions exercent une influence sur les incitations des parties à réaliser des investissements spécifiques. Ainsi, l’analyse présentée montre notamment de quels éléments d’ordre économique et social les juges devraient tenir compte si l’objectif recherché est la maximisation des niveaux des investissements choisis par les parties. D’autre part, la structure des procédures judiciaires a également une incidence sur le comportement des individus une fois le litige déclenché entre les deux parties. En effectuant des comparaisons entre plusieurs systèmes de résolution des litiges au moyen d’outils théoriques et d’une analyse expérimentale, cette thèse participe aux débats juridiques actuels portant sur la capacité des procédures à générer le maximum d’accords, permettant la réduction des dépenses de justice.

O conhecimento constitui bem jurídico, passível de tutela tanto sob a ótica da criação - por meio dos direitos de propriedade intelectual - quanto sob a ótica da sua utilidade econômica - juntamente com os demais elementos intangíveis do estabelecimento empresarial. Questão amplamente debatida e objeto de controvérsia é a destinação desses bens intangíveis por ocasião do afastamento de um sócio da sociedade empresária. Discute-se se esses bens devem integrar a base de cálculo dos haveres do sócio afastado. Neste trabalho, pretende-se oferecer resposta a essa indagação. Para tanto, analisaremos de que maneira são formadas as dimensões patrimoniais da sociedade - capital social, patrimônio líquido e estabelecimento -, as diversas hipóteses de extinção parcial do vínculo societário, o conteúdo econômico dos elementos intangíveis integrantes do estabelecimento e a natureza jurídica do eventual pagamento por esses bens ao sócio que se desliga da sociedade.

Le dirigeant de fait exerce le pouvoir de gestion de la société en lieu et place des dirigeants régulièrement désignés ou avec ceux-ci. La société étant une personne morale dont l’organisation fait l’objet d’une attention particulière du législateur en raison de son importance dans l’économie moderne, l’intervention d’un dirigeant de fait suscite bien des interrogations quant à l’efficacité de ces règles. Cette thèse examine les circonstances historiques dans lesquelles la notion de dirigeant de fait est apparue dans le droit français applicable aux sociétés commerciales afin de cerner l’existence ou non d’une volonté du législateur d’autoriser ou d’interdire la direction de fait. Elle tente de contribuer modestement à la connaissance du statut de dirigeant de fait sur trois points principaux. Elle précise d’abord les conditions qui permettent d’attribuer à une personne la qualité de dirigeant de fait d’une société. Elle détermine ensuite les règles de droit qui sont applicables à un tel dirigeant. Elle propose enfin une théorie juridique pour justifier l’application de ces règles. Le résultat de la recherche permet d’affirmer qu’en dépit de la nature juridique originelle de son intervention, le dirigeant de fait jouit progressivement d’un statut de dirigeant social en droit français.

En interprétant le contrat, l'arbitre du commerce international a forgé un certain nombre de principes généraux qui consolident l'édification d'un corps de normes spécifiques au besoin de la communauté internationale des commerçants. Les principes généraux de la lex mercatoria font de l'arbitre une source de droit objectif. A ce premier volet sur lequel débouche l'approche interprétative de l'arbitre s'ajoute le second aspect de l'apport de l'interprétation du contrat. Ce second aspect met en exergue le rôle de l'arbitre en tant que source de droits subjectifs attachée à la détermination des prérogatives et des obligations respectives des parties. A travers cette détermination s'ouvre le débat relatif à l'étendue du pouvoir de l'arbitre à l'égard du contrat. La dimension créative de l'arbitre s'accentue à travers un contrôle restreint des juridictions étatiques. Ce contrôle fait de la sanction de la dénaturation commise par l'arbitre et de la révision au fond de la sentence des interdits à ne pas franchir. = Interpreting the contract, the arbitrator of international commerce built up a number of general principles that consolidate the building of standards specific to the needs of the traders' international community. The general principles of Lex Mercatorea make of the arbitrator an objective law source. In addition to this constituent resulted by the interpretative approach of the arbitrator, there is the second aspect which the arbitration interpretation of the international commerce contract comes out with. This aspect highlights the role of arbitrator as a source of subjective laws, a role related to the determination of prerogatives and obligations respective to the parties. This determination leads to a debate relative to the range of powers of the arbitrator with regard to the contract. The creative dimension related to the interpretative approach of the arbitrator becomes more pronounced with the restricted control of state jurisdictions. This control controls the distortion committed by the arbitrator and the revision in the sentence of the proscription not to get over.

Good corporate governance should be the cornerstone of all company management. Directors ought to know in whose interests the company should be managed. This thesis attempts to answer the following question: whose interests must be granted primacy in the management of a company? In chapter 1 it is stated that shareholders' interests are traditionally granted primacy in the management of a company. There has, however, been a shift in public opinion towards recognition of a wider variety of interests that should be considered than only those of the shareholders. These interests include, inter alia, environmental interests and those of the investors, employees and consumers. This thesis thus focuses on the primary stakeholders, namely individual shareholders, creditors, employees, consumers and suppliers. In chapter 2 a theoretical foundation is provided on the nature of a company. The different theories on the nature of a company, emphasising either shareholder primacy or stakeholder protection, are discussed. A combined new theory is proposed. It is suggested that the confusion relating to the meaning of "the company" needs to be eliminated. Chapters 3, 4 and 5 provide an international comparison of the company law in Botswana, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The focus falls, firstly, on directors' duties, secondly, on the question in whose interests directors should manage a company and, thirdly, on the codification of their duties. In chapter 6 the South African position is evaluated. First, the possible stakeholders are identified and the protection currently afforded them is explained. The reports of the King Committee on Corporate Governance, the Policy Document on company law reform as well as the Companies Bill of 2007 are discussed. Draft clauses are recommended to be incorporated in new company legislation to provide directors with clarity on what is expected of them. It is the aim of this thesis to provide clarity on whose interests should receive primacy when directors manage a company. The outcome of this research should provide a clear indication to South African directors of what is expected of them and who the beneficiaries of their fiduciary duties are.

This is a thesis in contract law concerning the distinction between interpretation of contracts (“tolkning”) and construction of contracts (“utfyllning”) traditionally upheld within Scandinavian doctrine. To some extent, this distinction has always been a source of conceptual confusion, but in late-modern times, it has, in certain respects, become almost unintelligible – owing to the gradual loss of function of the form of rationality that originally sustained it. The distinction is now a mere artefact. In itself, this fact does, of course, not make this particular conceptual contraption exceptional. As they are absorbed into the language of contract law, all successful contract law concepts undergoes a process of reification. In the case of the distinction between interpretation and construction, the result is, however, unusually curious. In its traditional form, the distinction expresses the hope for a law of contract that is organized according to scientific principles. It rests on the assumption that it is desirable and possible, in principle, to separate science from non-science. It presupposes that questions of fact are separable from questions of law, Is from Ought, and the uncovering of the meaning of legal documents from the application of the rules they contain. The distinction promises that it is possible to escape the confines of the law-text, to reach beyond the text and the play of words constituting its interpretation, in order to ground interpretive discourse in factual reality. Yet, the distinction itself is nothing but text, i e, nothing but law. Drawing on the Kantian tradition, specifically on the writings of Wittgenstein, the author subjects this contradictory structure to criticism. The aim of the study is, however, not to once and for all remove the contradiction. On the contrary, the policy advocated is one of acceptance – mediated through historical awareness. By distancing ourselves from the vision of law and science that is immanent in the distinction under scrutiny, we would be able to come to terms with the hermeneutical side of contract interpretation, and with the inscrutability of the subjective dimension of the contract construct. When interpretation is called for, it is due to the very fact that there is no verifiable intention, yet the conclusions of the interpreter are given in the form of reports on what the parties actually intended. This, the author concludes, does not make the interpretation of contracts unscientific, even though we, being Scandinavian private law lawyers, were fostered to think otherwise.

O presente trabalho investiga as novas estruturas organizacionais das bolsas de valores e das bolsas de mercadorias e futuros, implementadas após os processos de desmutualização. É feita uma análise da importância das bolsas para o desenvolvimento econômico, bem como do seu papel de entidades auto-reguladoras. São ainda apresentados os principais fatores que motivaram a conversão das bolsas de associações mutualísticas para sociedades anônimas, bem como as conseqüências dessa alteração organizacional. O trabalho explora também as alterações regulamentares ocorridas no exterior, que buscaram evitar o surgimento de conflitos de interesses entre o papel de entidades auto-reguladoras das bolsas e seu objetivo de maximização do valor das ações. Realiza-se, por fim, uma análise crítica da Instrução CVM n.O 461/07, norma editada pela Comissão de Valores Mobiliários (CVM) que regula a organização, o funcionamento e as atividades das bolsas no Brasil. O trabalho conclui que a norma editada pela CVM utiliza diversos mecanismos de controle que objetivam evitar a ocorrência de conflitos de interesses, com o estabelecimento de práticas de governança corporativa internamente às bolsas, na esteira das experiências observadas em outros países. The present work examines the new organizational structure of the stock and derivatives exchanges, implemented after their demutualization process. It analyses the importance of the stock exchange for the economical development, as well as its role as self-regulatory organization. There are also presented the main factors that motivated the conversion of the stock exchange, from mutual associations to corporations, as well as the consequences of this organizational change. The work also explores the regulatory changes made in foreign countries, that aim to avoid the conflict of interests between the role of the exchanges as selfregulatory entities and their goal of maximizing value. Finally, a critical analysis is made, regarding CVM´s Instruction n.º 461/07, rule issued by the Brazilian Securities and Exchange Comission (Comissão de Valores Mobiliários - CVM) that deals with the structure and functioning of the Brazilian exchanges. The work concludes that the rule issued by the CVM uses many mechanisms of control that aim to avoid the conflict of interests, settling high level corporate governance practices inside the stock exchange, in accordance to international regulatory standards.

les règles de la concurrence interviennent soit pour sanctionner les limitations apportées à la concurrence en tant que mode d'organisation soit pour sanctionner les excès de la concurrence. Les règles de concurrence vont alors avoir pour fonction d'une part la protection de la libre concurrence par le biais des pratiques anticoncurrentielles et du contrôle des concentrations et d'autre part le maintien de la concurrence dans des limites " raisonnables " en sanctionnant des excès par le biais, par exemple, de l'interdiction des pratiques restrictives ou encore par le biais des pratiques dites déloyales. Si la sanction des atteintes à la concurrence a pour objet la protection de la libre concurrence, la sanction des excès de concurrence permet aussi de garantir l'existence même de cette libre concurrence en assurant au préalable l'égalité des conditions d'exercice de la concurrence. Cependant, les excès de concurrence ne concernent pas selon nous seulement les hypothèses de concurrence interdite incarnée par la prohibition des pratiques restrictives de concurrence et les hypothèses de concurrence déloyale, mais aussi et surtout les excès mêmes d'un fonctionnement concurrentiel basé sur un seul critère le prix le plus bas. Or, cette logique concurrentielle basé sur le seul critère du prix se concilie difficilement avec l'objectif affirmé en droit interne, européen et international d'un développement durable . Ainsi par exemple, l'article 6 du traité de l'Union européenne rappelle que " Les exigences de la protection de l'environnement doivent être intégrées dans la définition et la mise en œuvre des politiques et actions de la Communauté en particulier afin de promouvoir le développement durable ". L'intégration de considérations sociales, environnementales et de protection de la santé publique en tant que conditions d'accès au marché et/ou en tant qu'éléments mêmes de la concurrence entre entreprises constitue un des enjeux essentiels de nos sociétés . Elle explique une partie de nos travaux portant sur le principe de précaution dans le cadre du commerce international ou encore sur les considérations sociales et environnementales dans la passation des marchés publics . En effet, il nous semble comme certains auteurs que le fonctionnement concurrentiel du marché et le droit de la concurrence tendent à " prendre en charge un certain nombre d'exigences sociales au moment même où se délite sous la poussée de l'ordre concurrentiel un ordre public social" . La notion d'ordre concurrentiel tend à prendre ainsi en compte un certain nombre d'exigences a priori peu liées au marché. Cette notion d'" ordre concurrentiel " est aujourd'hui au cœur de toutes les interrogations sur la façon dont le droit peut apporter ses réponses à la globalisation de l'économie . La concurrence en tant que mécanisme connaît donc deux écueils : l'entrave ou l'excès. Ces deux écueils sont au cœur des travaux de recherches déjà effectués ainsi que des thématiques de recherches futures.

L'article L 650-1 du Code de commerce, issu de la loi de sauvegarde du 26 juillet 2005, procède à un allègement de la responsabilité du banquier : celui-ci n'est plus responsable des préjudices subis du fait des concours accordés à une entreprise en difficulté. Si la légitimité de la mesure a été remise en cause, elle répond néanmoins à un objectif d'intérêt général : promouvoir la fourniture de crédit. La recevabilité de l'action en responsabilité est toutefois admise dans trois cas : la fraude, l'immixtion caractérisée dans la gestion du débiteur et la prise de garanties disproportionnées, qui constituent les trois seuls cas d'ouverture de l'action pour soutien abusif. Ainsi les banquiers bénéficient-ils désormais d'une immunité dont les causes de déchéance tendent à la moralisation du droit des affaires. Mais cet allègement ne saurait concerner les autres hypothèses de mise en cause de la responsabilité du banquier. Celui-ci reste responsable en cas de rupture abusive de crédit ou de non respect de ses obligations contractuelles en particulier envers les emprunteurs non avertis. La direction de fait est également source de responsabilité civile. Enfin, la fourniture de moyens ruineux pour éviter ou retarder l'ouverture d'une procédure collective engage la responsabilité pénale du banquier, devenu complice. Les conséquences de la responsabilité sont en outre particulièrement dissuasives, en particulier la nullité des garanties constituées. Cet allègement de la responsabilité constitue donc une chance pour les banquiers de s'investir dans le financement des entreprises, encore faut-il que cette occasion soit saisie, sans toutefois tomber dans l'excès de crédit.

A trop vouloir poser la loi étrangère en parfait symbole de la résolution des conflits de lois, les auteurs dressent une présentation manichéenne du droit international privé où la lex fori (loi du juge saisi) incarne l’indésirable. C’est oublier qu’elle est davantage utilisée que la loi étrangère en matière de litiges internationaux puisque de nombreux procédés lui octroient pleinement ou subsidiairement une position privilégiée. Prenant acte de ce constat, qu’il fonde sur des conditions sociologiques (ethnocentrisme) et pragmatiques (bonne administration de la justice), l’auteur entend réhabiliter la loi du for. Sans aller jusqu’à un legeforismo, dont la traduction pratique serait l’application systématique de la lex fori, un équilibre réaliste est proposé à partir d’un rapprochement des critères de rattachement et des chefs de compétence. Le vade-mecum de ce rapprochement offre alors les clés de la complémentarité qui doit exister entre la lex fori et la loi étrangère

Regulating telecommunications is complex: international experience indicates that there is no 'successful' regulatory framework due to the balancing of industry and regulatory interests (Laffont & Tirole, 2000, p. 13). The New Zealand 'light-handed' regulatory experiment failed and the 1999 General Election presented an opportunity for change in telecommunications. The Labour-led Government in implementing a policy of 'responsible re-regulation' enacted the Telecommunications Act 2001, signalling the passage of "landmark telecommunications legislation ..." (Swain, 2001d). Within the Telecommunications Act 2001, 'cost' assumed a central regulatory role. It is this move to cost that this thesis considers in identifying, developing, and critiquing the interface of law and accounting. The thesis examines the increasing call for accounting information in law and regulation by interrogating the use, presentation, and reception of accounting to examine the interface between law and cost in the regulation of telecommunications. The Telecommunications Act 2001 incorporates total service long run incremental costing as the 'costing technique' for interconnection access and annual net costing for the Telecommunications Service Obligation. Through interrogating 'cost' as an accounting technology, in contrast to the economic and legal conception of cost as a simple, objective concept, the thesis illustrates the role of cost at methodological, technical, and political levels, and the challenges that this poses for telecommunications regulation. The thesis articulates the relevance of discourse theory to the interface of law and accounting. Consequently, the thesis investigates the formation and discursive enunciation of standpoints of political identities characterised by antagonism and uncertainty. This includes identifying attempts by interested parties, including industry actors, stakeholders, and the Government and its agents, to articulate 'new' discourses centred on nodal points around 'cost'. The rhetorical analysis examines how actors articulate the metaphorical element of 'cost' in agitating for particular costing methods to be included in the legislation. The empirical analysis examines the process of rhetorical condensation as arguments for and against the incorporation of total service long run incremental costing and net costing came to signify the complete failure of the light-handed regulation. Then, by examining the politics following the enactment of legislation, this condensation is unpacked. The analysis of the contestation over interpreting and implementing the regulation illustrates displacement of the 'common' signifier resulting in confusion and disappointment in relation to the aims of the new regulatory regime.