Bibliographie sélective OHADA

The Law of Insolvency in South Africa is regulated by the provisions of the Insolvency Act 24 of 1936, with foundations in our common law, which has been influenced by different legal systems from Western Europe. But currently there is also other legislation affecting the insolvent debtor and the property in the insolvent estate. The courts too have had to formulate rules to govern aspects of insolvency law in South Africa. These variables created problem areas in insolvency law and in respect of the of the policies upon which the insolvency system hinges. The predominant policy in South African insolvency is the collection of the maximum assets of the debtor for the advantage of creditors in insolvent estates. This strict creditor orientated approach created further problem areas in respect of assets in the insolvent estates of individual debtors. If advantage to creditors cannot be shown in an application for the sequestration of a debtor’s estate, a court will refuse to grant that order. This strict policy overshadows policy concerns in respect of assets in insolvent estates, and regarding exemption law in respect of those assets. This has resulted in insolvency law reformers in South Africa missing the bigger picture, namely, that South Africa is a creditor driven developing society. It is conceivable that in the transformed South Africa, and in the present world economic chaos, there will be an escalation of sequestrations of the estates of individual debtors. Bearing this in mind, a reformed insolvency law system must become more debtor friendly. A change in the philosophy is needed in favour of an exemption policy for insolvent estates. Exemption policy must be based on the interest of the debtor and his dependants, his dignity, creditor and third party interests, social welfare, and human rights imperatives within the South African constitutional framework. Exemption policy must be linked to the policy of a “fresh start” for the debtor. The different policies in insolvency however create a conflict of interest among the different stakeholders, particularly regarding the assets in insolvent estates, thereby creating problem areas. In this thesis several problem areas are identified and critically analysed. The position of property included in, and excluded from, individuals’ insolvent estates is investigated from a brief historical perspective, and in a brief comparative survey of the insolvency systems of the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Acute problem areas are critically analysed in detail, and the constitutional impact on property in insolvent estates is considered in a separate chapter. The South African Law Reform Commission’s review of South African insolvency law is critically analysed in a chapter of this thesis, concluding that the Commission’s review is inadequate. This thesis concludes that there is a need to reform the insolvency system in South Africa and proposes a way forward in respect of property included in, and property excluded or exempt from insolvent estates. This thesis states the law to the end of October 2008.

O juiz tem um dever de direção material do processo que consiste em respeitar os direitos processuais das partes e fomentar o seu exercício. A direção material do processo exige real possibilidade de argumentação das partes sobre todas as alegações de fato e sobre todos os pontos de vista jurídicas contidos na decisão. Existe uma proibição de decisões surpresa. É possível afirmar a presença desse dever judicial no Brasil a partir de duas perspectivas diferentes. Em primeiro lugar, a partir da conexão entre o dever de direção material do processo, uma teoria forte dos direitos processuais e uma concepção liberal de justiça processual. Em segundo lugar, a partir de uma perspectiva comparativa. O processo civil alemão apresenta-se como modelo de um sistema que atende aos requisitos teóricos acima mencionados, além de contar expressamente em seu Código de Processo Civil com a direção material do processo (§ 139, ZPO) e com um remédio contra a violação de direitos processuais (§ 321a, ZPO). Embora o Código de Processo Civil brasileiro não contenha tal dever de forma expressa, a interpretação dos direitos processuais fundamentais contidos na Constituição, aliada à visão teórica desenvolvida, impõe a conclusão da existência do dever de direção material do processo. A direção material do processo só é alcançável a partir de uma concepção de liberalismo político processual capaz de legitimamente conjugar o necessário ativismo processual do juiz com a necessidade de tratar as partes com dignidade. Die materielle Prozessleitung ist eine richterliche Pflicht. In Erfüllung dieser Pflicht muss der Richter die prozessualen Rechten der Parteien respektieren und fördern. Es ist notwendig, dass die Parteien eine reale Möglichkeit der Auseinandersetzung über Tatsachen und Rechtsgesichtspunkte haben. Aus der materiellen Prozessleitung ergibt sich insofern ein Verbot von Überraschungsentscheidungen. In Brasilien können für die Existenz einer richterlichen Befugnis oder Pflicht zur materiellen Prozessleitung zwei verschiedene Gesichtspunkte angeführt werden. Zuerst durch die Verknüpfung der richterlichen Aufgabe, Hinweispflichten zu geben, mit einer starke Theorie von Verfahrensrechten als Ausfluss eines liberalen Verständnis von Verfahrensgerechtigkeit. Zweitens durch eine vergleichende Perspektive. Das deutsche Zivilprozessrecht stellt sich als Modell eines Systems dar, das diese Erfordernisse erfüllt. Es enthält auch in der ZPO die Aufgabe, den Prozess materiell zu leiten (§ 139, ZPO) und gewährt Rechtsbehelfe gegen die Verletzung der Verfahrensrechte (§ 321a, ZPO). Die brasilianische ZPO kennt keine ausdrückliche Pflicht zur materiellen Prozessleitung. Allerdings kann man diese richterliche Hinweispflicht aus prozessualen Grundrechten, in Verbindung mit dem oben erwähnten theoretischen Rahmen ableiten. Die materielle Prozessleitung kann nur durch einen prozessualen politischen Liberalismus erreicht werden, der die notwendige richterliche Einmischung mit der Würde der Parteien in Einklang setzen kann.

Através do presente trabalho, demonstra-se que a função social da empresa é o fundamento e a justificativa para o reconhecimento e a proteção de interesses alheios aos dos sócios na sociedade limitada. Nos três primeiros capítulos, o objetivo é apontar qual o fundamento teórico da funcionalização do direito de propriedade, quais corolários dela decorrem e qual a sua importância para o exercício da empresa. Defende-se que a função social da propriedade é imperativo decorrente da ordem jurídica do mercado, moldada principalmente pelo princípio da solidariedade social. Por sua vez, a função social da empresa é corolário da função social da propriedade. Sustenta-se que a funcionalização do exercício da empresa repercute no exercício da atividade empresarial, acarretando obrigações positivas e negativas aos sócios majoritários (controladores) e administradores das sociedades empresárias, assim como incide sobre o exercício do direito de propriedade de parcelas do capital, do que decorrem obrigações atinentes aos sócios. A partir do capítulo quarto, objetiva-se sistematizar a composição de interesses na sociedade limitada, em abordagem que inclui tanto os conflitos que envolvem os sócios entre si, como os que os vinculam a terceiros, como a própria sociedade, os credores, os empregados, etc. No primeiro aspecto, versa-se sobre: deliberações sociais; o direito de recesso como forma de resolução de conflitos entre os sócios; a dissolução parcial como instrumento para assegurar a liberdade de não permanecer associado; as restrições ao exercício abusivo da administração; a transparência como instrumento de preservação dos interesses dos minoritários; o direito de participação nos lucros e no acervo social em caso de dissolução e liquidação da sociedade; o direito à manutenção da mesma proporção no capital social e o acordo de quotista como instrumento de composição de interesses. No segundo, sobre o conflito de interesses entre a sociedade e o sócio, em razão do exercício do direito de voto; a exclusão dos sócios nas modalidades de resolução da sociedade em relação ao sócio minoritário, da exclusão do sócio majoritário e do sócio remisso; aspectos da composição do capital social; os efeitos externos da sociedade, em abordagem que apreciará as conseqüências da autonomia patrimonial, a responsabilidade dos sócios e administradores e a desconsideração da personalidade jurídica; aspectos da proteção dos interesses dos empregados e da preservação do meio ambiente. A partir da análise doutrinária e jurisprudencial, demonstra-se como o princípio da função social da empresa é importante para a composição de interesses na sociedade limitada.

A legislação aplicável às sociedades por ações utiliza conceitos e normas abertas que devem ser interpretadas com base nos princípios que regem as sociedades por ações, considerando, nessa análise, as características específicas da companhia na qual surgiu a controvérsia e as situações que integram e esclarecem a situação controversa levada a conhecimento do Judiciário. A liberdade dos empresários, na condução de suas atividades, tem fundamento no sistema econômico Brasileiro, conforme princípios da Constituição Federal. No entanto, os interesses sociais protegidos pela Constituição Federal exigem que as empresas, especialmente as sociedades por ações, que agregam características institucionais, estabeleçam limites para a condução das atividades das companhias. Da mesma forma, a criação de um ente autônomo e dotado de patrimônio próprio, cria uma separação entre o poder de controle e administração dos bens, direitos e obrigações que integram esse patrimônio e os acionistas que contribuíram inicialmente para sua constituição, motivo pelo qual a condução dos negócios empresariais deve sempre buscar atingir os interesses da companhia e os agentes necessários para realização dessas atividades têm deveres e responsabilidades com os demais acionistas e terceiros afetados pela existência da companhia. Nesse contexto, a atuação do Judiciário se restringe a verificar a ocorrência de atos ilegais de gestão. O Judiciário, no sistema jurídico brasileiro, não podendo interferir no mérito das deliberações, sob pena de infringir o princípio da livre iniciativa e do exercício do poder de controle, que estruturam o sistema legal que regula as sociedades por ações. A responsabilidade dos administradores e controladores que agem de boa-fé nos atos regulares de gestão deve ser preservada em face dos resultados da companhia e os interesses dos demais sócios.

O presente trabalho objetivou demonstrar que o processo coletivo é o instrumento adequado para a efetivação dos direitos fundamentais sociais. Com a renovação ética representada pela Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos, os Estados passaram a institucionalizar os direitos fundamentais, assegurando-lhes eficácia no plano jurídico. Os direitos fundamentais sociais foram concebidos para o estabelecimento da igualdade substancial e para a afirmação da democracia. A morfologia dos direitos fundamentais sociais destaca a existência de núcleos constitucionais de irradiação. Os direitos fundamentais sociais são plena e imediatamente eficazes. O Estado social define os contornos da teoria da separação de poderes. O controle de constitucionalidade erigiu o Poder Judiciário à condição de poder político. A independência e a imparcialidade dos órgãos jurisdicionais impedem a adoção de elementos externos à jurisdição, tais como as questões políticas e a reserva do possível, para afastar o exame da violação dos direitos fundamentais sociais. O princípio da inafastabilidade obriga o exame judicial da violação dos direitos fundamentais sociais. A concessão de tais direitos em processos individuais causa o paradoxo da desigualdade. A análise das políticas públicas faz-se de forma distinta, consoante a fase processual. O âmbito de cognição das políticas públicas pelo Poder Judiciário está restrito à violação, por conduta comissiva ou omissiva do Estado, de direito fundamental social. Os direitos fundamentais sociais são o objeto do processo coletivo, e não as políticas públicas. O provimento jurisdicional realinha as políticas públicas e tende à satisfação plena e coercitiva dos bens da vida em âmbito geral. Il seguente lavoro ha come obiettivo dimostrare che il processo collettivo è lo strumento adeguato per leffettività dei diritti fondamentali sociali. Con la rinnovazione etica rappresentata attraverso la Dichiarazione Universale de Diritti Umani, gli Stati passarono ad istituire i diritti fondamentali, garantendo efficacia nel piano giuridico. I diritti fondamentali sociali furono concepiti per la creazione delluguaglianza sostanziale e per laffermazione della democrazia. La morfologia dei diritti fondamentali sociali distacca l?esistenza dei nuclei costituzionali di irradiazione. I diritti fondamentali sociali sono piena ed immediatamente efficaci. Lo stato sociale delimita i contorni della teoria della separazione dei poteri. Il controllo della consitutizionalità ha eretto il potere giudiziario alla parità del potere politico. Lindipendenza e limparzialità degli organi di giurisdizione impediscono ladozione di elementi esterni alla giurisdizione, tali come le questioni politiche e la riserva del possibili, per allontanare lesame della violazione dei diritti fondamentali sociali. Il principio del non allontanamento obbliga lesame Giudiziario della violazione dei diritti fondamentali sociali. La concessione di tali diritti in processi individuali causa il paradosso della disuguaglianza. Lanalisi delle politiche pubbliche si fa di forma distinta, daccordo con la fase processuale. Lambito della cognizione delle politiche pubbliche da parte del potere Giudiziario è ristretto alla violazione, per condotta missiva od omissiva da parte dello Stato, di diritto fondamentale sociale. I diritti fondamentali sociali sono loggetto del processo collettivo, e non le politiche pubbliche. Il provimento giurisdizionale allinea le politiche pubbliche e tende alla soddisfazione piena e coercitiva dei beni di vita in ambito generale.

La langue est saisie par le droit en premier lieu dans le cadre des organisations internationales. Plus spécifiquement, les relations internationales en matière commerciale démontrent qu’un champ d’analyse encore vaste reste à défricher. Le choix de la langue est très largement, en matière de commerce international, dépendant de la volonté des parties. La question de l’autonomie de la volonté est donc centrale dans l’étude du lien entre la langue et le droit. Mais le choix de cette langue est souvent fait sans considération des risques linguistiques, et notamment des conséquences en ce qui concerne la mise en œuvre et l’interprétation du contrat. Par ailleurs, les règles concernant l’instance, qu’elle soit étatique ou arbitrale, sont dispersées. La question de la langue n’est de manière générale abordée que de façon accessoire, accidentelle, alors même qu’elle est nécessaire au respect d’un certain nombre de principes, tels que le droit au procès équitable. C’est pourquoi il est nécessaire de réfléchir à la difficulté à exprimer, avec des langues juridiques marquées par les cultures nationales, un droit uniforme, particulièrement en ce qui concerne le commerce international, où le volontarisme étatique trouve moins matière à s’exprimer. Pour cela, des outils sont à la disposition du juriste. En premier lieu, les techniques de traduction, voire de corédaction, des textes juridiques, doivent être exploitées, afin de servir les objectifs de la formulation de la règle de droit, particulièrement lorsqu’il s’agit d’élaborer un droit uniforme. Cela est d’autant plus nécessaire que le droit du commerce international voit l’émergence de concepts autonomes, qu’il sera dans un premier temps difficile à délimiter et à formuler avec l’appareil juridique et linguistique national, marqué par la culture nationale.

This thesis provides a comprehensive analysis of the legal, social, and economic consequences of business transfers on employment contracts, focusing on South African law and its comparison with international standards. It critically evaluates the automatic transfer of employment contracts, the protection of employee rights, and the legal complexities surrounding insolvent undertakings.

L'évolution des textes a engendré une fragilisation de la propriété privée immobilière. Il convient de scinder cette recherche en deux parties. La première partie aborde l'intérêt privé et la seconde partie concerne l'intérêt général. Ainsi, il convient tout d'abord d'évoquer l'histoire de la propriété privée afin de comprendre la place réservée à ce droit après sa reconnaissance. Cette étude s'avère indispensable afin de saisir très précisément les raisons qui ont engendré une fragilisation. La multiplication des textes favorables aux personnes en difficultés a vu apparaître un nouvel intérêt qualifié d'intérêt social. Ce nouvel intérêt a entraîné un devoir de justice sociale du propriétaire. Parallèlement, la multiplication de l'utilisation du terme intérêt général a lui aussi engendré une fragilisation. Ainsi, l'étude du droit de l'urbanisme et du droit de l'environnement apparaît essentielle. Ces différentes notions tendent à réduire les pouvoirs du propriétaire. Cette maîtrise des sols est particulièrement étendue puisque le propriétaire participe à la préservation des paysages. Cette protection environnementale favorise le tourisme. Ce dernier domaine engendre aussi une fragilisation de la propriété privée immobilière. The evolution of the texts of laws engendred an embrittlement of the real estate private property. It is advisable to split this research into two parts . The first part approaches the private interest and the second part concerns the general interest. So, it is advisable to evoke first of all the history of the private property to understand the place reserved for the private property after its recognition. This study turns out indispensable to seize very exactly the reasons which engendred at present an embrittlement. The reproduction of texts favorable to the persons in difficulties saw appearing time, the reproduction of the use of the term general interest engendred her an embrittlement. So, the study of the law of the town planning and of the law of the environment seems essential. The capacities of these notions tend to reduce the powers of the owner. This control of grounds is particularly wide because the owner participates in the conversation of the envionmental landscapes. This environmental protection facilates the tourism. This last domain also engenders an embrittlement of the real estate private property.

La réflexion sur la nature juridique et l'effectivité du droit à l'exécution forcée s'inscrit dans un mouvement d'ensemble incontournable en droit interne comme en droit international. L' approche comparative fondée sur les systèmes juridiques camerounais et français, enrichie de divers instruments et systèmes internationaux et régionaux, permet d'affirmer que le droit à l'exécution forcée est un droit subjectif et fondamental. Il est reconnu à toute personne titulaire d'un titre exécutoire. La recherche permanente d'un équilibre délicat mais nécessaire entre les droits et intérêts des différentes parties ainsi que la prise en compte des impératifs de l'ordre public et de l'intérêt général, délimitent le domaine du droit à l'exécution forcée. Pour être plus efficace, ce droit doit être construit autour des principes de négociations et de transparence. A ces deux principes nous proposons d' ajouter un autre, celui de la gestion préventive du risque d'inexécution. Consideration of the judirical nature and effectiveness of the right to compulsory execution falls within a general trend that is inescapable as much in internal law as an international law. A comparative approach based in the Cameroon and French legal systems, enriched by diverse instruments and international and regional systems allows us to assert that the right to compulsory executionis a sujective and fundamental right. It is granted to any person who holds an enforceable right. The continuous seeking out of a delicate but necessary balance between the rights and interests of different parties and consideration of the paramountcy of public policy and the general interest, delineate the scope of application of the right to compulsory execution. To be more effective, this right must be built around the principles of negociation and transparency. To these two principles we suggest addind another, that of preventive management of the risk of non-execution.

L’émergence des espaces d’intégration devant aider au renforcement des structures d’intégration économique et politique créées en Afrique au lendemain des indépendances a eu pour conséquence, l’apparition d’un droit matériel essentiellement économique. L’objectif affiché par les différents législateurs communautaires est de moderniser les règles juridiques applicables dans le domaine économique afin de les rendre conformes aux exigences du commerce international et favoriser la sécurité juridique propice au développement des investissements. Or, parce que les contrats constituent les mécanismes juridiques par excellence de l’organisation de la vie économique, ces nouvelles réglementations ne pouvaient manquer d’influencer directement ou indirectement le droit des contrats. L’influence du droit communautaire sur le droit des contrats s’observe en premier lieu dans les réglementations éparses, adoptées aussi bien dans le cadre de l’OHADA, de la CEMAC que de la CIMA. Ces institutions harmonisent en les modernisant les contrats spéciaux dont la plupart ont été hérités du législateur colonial par les Etats membres. C’est ainsi que les perturbations à la théorie générale des contrats relevées dans ces contrats étaient déjà connues dans les Etats membres bien avant l’avènement du droit communautaire. Cependant, cette réaction face aux insuffisances de la théorie générale des contrats ne pouvait s’éterniser au risque de voir celle-ci se vider de sa substance. C’est pourquoi, en second lieu, par un avant-projet d’Acte uniforme, le législateur OHADA offre de s’aligner sur la voie déjà tracée depuis les années 1990 par de nombreux pays ayant adopté le code civil de 1804, en révisant sa partie réservée au droit des contrats. Sans toutefois remettre en cause les principes fondamentaux de la théorie générale des contrats, l’auteur de ce avant-projet propose d’offrir un droit des contrats moderne, moins antagoniste, intégrant les principes de transparence et d’équilibre. Il est question d’apporter des correctifs nécessaires à la rigueur à laquelle a abouti l’interprétation libérale des règles du code civil à l’aune de la théorie de l’autonomie de la volonté. Prenant en compte la diversité du droit communautaire applicable au Cameroun, ce travail met en exergue les transformations que connaît le droit des contrats actuellement applicable et propose les voies et moyens par lesquels la théorie générale du droit des contrats peut évoluer grâce à l’avènement des nouvelles réglementations.

Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) have proliferated at an unprecedented pace since the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Although the WTO legally recognizes countries’ entitlement to form RTAs, neither the WTO nor parties to RTAs have an unequivocal understanding of the relationship between the WTO and RTAs. In other words, the legal controversies, the result of uncertainty regarding the application of the WTO/GATT laws, risk undermining the objectives of the multilateral trade system. This thesis tackles a phenomenon that is widely believed to be heavily economic and political. The thesis highlights the economic and political aspects of regionalism, but largely concentrates on the legal dimension of regionalism. The main argument of the thesis is that the first step to achieving harmony between multilateralism and regionalism is the identification of the legal uncertainties that regionalism produces when countries form RTAs without taking into account the substantive and procedural aspect of the applicable WTO/ GATT laws. The thesis calls for the creation of a legal instrument (i.e. agreement on RTAs) that combines all of the applicable law on RTAs, and simultaneously clarifies the legal language used therein. Likewise, the WTO should have a proactive role, not merely as a coordinator of RTAs, but as a watchdog for the multilateral system that has the power to prosecute violating RTAs. The author is aware that political concerns are top priorities for governments and policy makers when dealing with the regionalism problematic. Hence, legal solutions or proposals are not sufficient to create a better international trade system without the good will of the WTO Members who are, in fact, the players who are striving to craft more regional trade arrangements.

The principle of party autonomy is widely accepted in the practice of international commercial arbitration. However, it still encounters certain limitations in its applications, especially for the fact that the demands of natural justice and the public good cannot be neglected by the parties. The various states in the international system have and operate peculiar systems of mandatory rules and public policies, which tend to impart significantly on the arbitral procedure, thereby creating a situation of discordance of outcomes of arbitration in different countries. For this reason, this writer intends to examine ways by which the various procedural laws can actually be harmonised. This thesis shall therefore focus on the discordances and confusion that often arise in the interacion of the various laws that may be applicable to the arbitral process in International commercial arbitration, as well as ways of achieving a harmonisation of these laws.

Denizciliğin kendine özgü ihtiyaç ve sorunlarından ortaya çıkmış bir kurum olan kurtarmayardım, TTK. m. 1222-1234'de düzenlenmiş olup köken itibariyle Alman hukukundanalınmıştır. Alman Hukukunun bu konudaki kaynağı ise Türkiye'nin de taraf bulunduğu 1910tarihli Brüksel Konvansiyonu'dur. 1910 tarihli konvansiyona 1967 yılında eklenen protokoleTürkiye taraf olmamıştır. 1989 Londra Konvansiyonuna taraf olma ise gereklidir. Zira 1989konvansiyonu gelişen ve değişen kurtarma teknikleri ve sorunlarını hukuki açıdan çözmekiçin uluslararası alanda düzenlenmiş en son konvansiyondur.Kurtarma yardım ücretinde sorunlardan biri, ücretin nasıl hesaplanacağıdır. Bu husus, 1910Brüksel Konvansiyonu hükümleri ve bu konvansiyona eklenen özel tazminat ve çevre zararınıönleme kriterlerini düzenleyen 1989 Londra Konvansiyonu hükümleri ile düzenlenmiştir.Kurtarma yardım ücreti hesaplanırken mahkeme bu kriterlerin ışığında hakkaniyete uygun birücret belirleyecektir.Kurtarma yardım ücretinin ödenmesi meselesinde önemli bir konu da bu ücretten denizsigortalarının teminat kapsamı doğrultusunda sigortacının sorumluluğu hususudur. Birkurtarma yardım hizmeti gerçekleştirildiğinde öncelikle uygun bir kurtarma yardım ücretibelirlenir. Bu kurtarma yardım ücreti olayın şartlarına göre müşterek avarya teşkil ettiğitakdirde kurtarma ücreti dispeçte alacaklı masasına kaydedilir ve müşterek avaryapaylaşımında yerini alır. Bu paylaşımda sigortacının tazminat sorumluluğu TTK hükümleri,genel şartlar ve İngiliz Hukuku özel şartları (Klozlar) ile York Anvers kuralları ışığındabelirlenir.Kurtarma yardım teşkil etmediği halde ise paylaşıma girmeden kurtarılan değerinsigortacısının kurtarma ücreti ve zararlarından sorumluluğu TTK hükümleri, genel şartlar veİngiliz Hukuku özel şartları (Klozlar) ile belirlenir. Emerged from own specific needs and problems of maritime Salvage, legislated in TTK.m.1222-1234, which has been originated from the German law. The source of German law inthis subject is the Convention dated 1910 in which Turkey is also a party. Turkey has not beenparty of the protocol in 1967 added to Convention dated 1910. Being a party to LondonConvention 1989 is necessary. Because Convention 1989 is the last convention to solvedeveloping and changing salvage techniques and problems from a legal perspective atinternational level.One of the problems of salvage payments is about how to calculate. This issue has beenregulated by provisions of Brussels 1910 Convention and London 1989 Convention whichregulates special compensation and prevention criteria of environmental damage. Whencalculating salvage payment, the court will determine a fair cost in the light of these criteria.An important subject matter of the payment of Salvage is the liability of insurer oriented withthe scope of maritime insurance assurance. When the salvage operation was done paymentwas determined primarily. When general average was established according to thecircumstances of this case this payment is recorded to creditor table at adjustment and takesplace in general average. This shared responsibility in the insurer's indemnity provisions aredetermined in light of the TTK provisions, general terms and specific terms of English Lawand York Antwerp Rules.In the case of without salvage, insurer liability of rescued value from salvage cost and lossesis determined by TTK, general terms and specific terms of English Law without sharing.

Libya is a predominately Muslim country where Islamic finance has not yet been established. However, given the current extensive program of financial reform in Libya and the rapid growth and appeal of Islamic finance in comparable economies, there is growing pressure for a system of Islamic finance to be provided. There is then a pressing need for research into the prospects for Islamic finance from a consumer and provider perceptive to inform this debate and thereby meet the needs of policymakers, financial service providers and prospective users. Accordingly, this study of Libyan attitudes towards Islamic methods of finance, the first study attempted in the Libyan context and one of few studies globally, applies a model derived from the Theory of Reasoned Action to analyse attitudes towards Islamic finance. The particular focus is to understand how the Theory of Reasoned Action can be used for predicting and understanding attitudes towards the potential use of Islamic methods of finance by Libyan retail consumers, business firms and banks. Four main research questions are posed to address this objective. First, does awareness of Islamic methods of finance influence attitudes towards the use of Islamic finance? Second, do socioeconomic, demographic and other factors influence attitudes towards Islamic finance? Third, what are the principal motivating factors towards the potential use of Islamic finance? Finally, is religion the major influence on the likelihood of engaging in Islamic finance? Three surveys of 385 retail consumers, 296 business firms and 134 bank managers in Libya are conducted in 2007/08 to achieve this objective. Descriptive analysis and multivariate statistical analysis (including factor analysis, discriminant analysis and binary logistic regressions) are used to analyse the data. The principal findings are that awareness of Islamic methods of finance and socioeconomic, demographic and business characteristics are key determinants of the likelihood of the use of Islamic finance. Further, religion plays a key, though not the only, role in influencing these attitudes. The thesis findings are of key importance in informing future financial industry practice and financial policy formation in Libya.

İslam Deniz ticaret hukukunda hukuki sorumluluk? adlı çalısmamızdadeniz ticaret hukuku ile ilgili olarak, İslam hukuku eserlerinde çesitli bölümlerde dağınıkhalde bulunan ?Daman? konusu üzerinde durmaya çalıstık.Konuyu ele alırken giriste özellikle önce, deniz hukuku ile deniz ticaret hukukarasındaki ayrıma dikkat çekerek deniz hukuku ile ilgili konuları dısarıda tuttuk. Daha sonra?İslam deniz ticaret hukuku? kavramını irdeledik. Ardından hukuk-fıkıh arasındaki güncelayrıma göre ?slam hukuku eserlerindeki ibadetlerle ilgili konuları ele almamamız gerektiğinibelirttik. Daha da özele inerek tezimizde; konunun cezai sorumlulukla ilgisini dısarıdatutmak gerektiğinin gerekçelerini sıralamaya çalıstık ve kaynakları nasıl ele alacağımızı izahettikArastırmamızda, birinci bölümde genel olarak ?slam hukuku ve günümüzhukuklarında sorumluluk üzerinde durduk. Sorumluluk fikriyle ilgili ayet ve hadislerden vefıkıh eserlerindeki ilgili tanımları ve sınıflandırmalara dikkat çektik. İslam deniz ticarethukukunun kısa tarihçesini vererek, Rodos deniz Kuralları gibi Roma hukukundan alıntıolduğu iddiasına cevap vermeye çalıstıkİkinci bölümde sözlesmeden doğan hukuki sorumlulukla ilgili olarak, İslamhukukçularının daha ilk yüzyıllardan beri denizde yük/esya ve yolcu tasıma ile ilgili olarak,gemiyi tümden kiralama ve sözlesme yaparak bir bölümünü kiralama veya bizatihi yüktasımayı esas alan kiralama sözlesmelerini farklarıyla birlikte bildiklerini gördük. İslamhukukçuların özellikle sözlesmelerde; geminin adı, varma limanı, yolculuğun süresi, yüksahibinin adı, navlun ücreti ve onun ne zaman ne sekilde ödeneceği vb. hukuki ayrımlarınyük tasıma sözlesmelerinde sözlü veya yazılı olarak olarak ayrıntılı bir sekilde yer almasınısart kostuklarını belirttik.Bilhassa Maliki hukukçuların bu alanda çalısmalarının diğerlerine göre daha fazlaolduğunu gördük. Malikiliğin yaygın olduğu Endülüs İspanyasında ortaya çıkan Consolatedel Mare'da Maliki emir ve hukukçuların büyük etkisi olduğunu karsılastırmalı olarakgöstermeye çalıstık.Üçüncü bölümde haksız fiilden doğan sorumlulukta İslam hukuku eserlerinde?ta'addî ve ifrât? kavramının olduğunu, deniz kazaları, avarya gibi yükün ve gemininkorunması ile ilgili meydana gelen masrafların iki taraf arasında kusurlu olup olmamadurumuna göre bölüsülmesi gerektiğine dikkat çektik. Fırtına, rüzgâr gibi beklenmeyendurumların sebebiyet verdiği kazalarda kusur bulunmasa da sorumlu olunduğunu vemasrafların iki taraf arasında paylasıldığını gördük. Müstakil bir bölüm teskil edecek ölçüdepek yeterli örnekler olmamakla birlikte, son bölümde sebepsiz zenginlesmeden kaynaklananhukuki sorumlulukla ilgili bazı tespitlere yer verdik. We tried to study “Liability Law in the Islamic Maritime Law” in the our exploration. There is a concept called “Daman” that means liability in the islamic maritime law. “Daman” is the same as the compensation of the damage because of the damages given. There are several sections called “Kitabu’d-Daman” in the some Islamic law books. We come across plenty of examples concerned liability that is not only an independent section in the most of Islamic law books but also caused on the contract and unjust action mostly. Some of these examples is concerned about liability in the islamic maritime law. As today in the past as well in the islamic laws the incidents of the maritime law were explained with a comparison with the ones on the land. They paid attention to many principles as well. Fob instance when ships crash each other, they added “unexcpected state”. They also asked like the position of the riders and horse carts bumped into each other on the land at these times horses were under trouble had failure accidents. In addition to this, the sea and ship sourced with the actions they mentioned this in their contract effect. Again, islamic law lecturers, finally with several improvments that were clear in the nineenth and twentieth centuries supplied the ship wholly leased with a contract one section or based on the goods earried as leasing contracts showed law distinctions significantly. Moreover, storing, not suitable to the sea average, shipwreck, goods found under the sea, they paid attention to both sides responsibility when there was an accident. Especially during the reigns of Endulus Spain there was a widespread religious flow called “Malikite” and the Maliki law lecturers stood more than as usual. Muslim judges and others in Katolanya region on the coast of Pacific Ocean of Spain issued rules called “Consolate de’l Mare” today’s maritime laws Like Mediterranean Geography several mixed a widespread culture in such a converted sitiuation maritime law affected under Rhodes rules was rumoured that e neutral investigation put into practice Islamic law people freely their own laws. When Muslims ruled the Mediteranean Area the law of Rome lost control over the region. To some extent there was an influential sitiuation; in other words that was naturally a result.

In a progressive income tax system with an individual tax unit, high-rate taxpayers have an incentive to split income with lower-rate family members to minimise the family’s total tax burden. This raises equity and neutrality concerns. Adopting a spousal tax unit limits the gains from income splitting, but the individual is the better choice on privacy, autonomy, equality, definitional, marriage neutrality and work incentive grounds. Once the individual is chosen as the income tax unit, the control model provides a strong policy basis for attributing both earned and unearned income to individuals. Income splitting, however, undermines this model as well as the individual tax unit. This thesis focuses on the UK’s approach to income-splitting in family businesses. The relevant UK income tax rules, particularly the settlements provisions, are inadequate for the task. Various possible reforms are examined. Incorporating a transfer pricing or ‘reasonableness’ test into the settlements provisions would strengthen these rules, but would make taxpayer compliance with an uncertain regime even more difficult. Another option is to expand the scope of employment tax by moving the borderline between employees and the self-employed or companies. Deeper structural reforms could be made to enhance the neutrality of taxation on different legal forms of economic activity. This would reduce the incentives to incorporate for tax savings, including from income splitting. Integration of income tax and NICs is one such option; a dual income tax is another. A TAAR or GAAR also could be pursued. Ultimately, some combination of these various reform options could provide a partial solution to this challenging issue.

This thesis focuses on the interaction of two categories of non-state actors, private sector corporate actors and non-governmental organizations, with states in the context of the World Trade Organization (WTO) through a lens of public international law. It builds on the premise that the notion of states as the only subjects of international law is not adequate for a modern system of global governance, as it does not reflect the realities of fast-paced globalization and increased co-operation in a world where the boundaries of the private and public are increasingly blurred. It does not necessarily provide solutions for participation of non-state actors in the WTO, but demonstrates that developments in international relations warrant more space for participation of non-state actors, and that the current system of the WTO fails to provide sufficient space for participation. The thesis argues that, for both historical and pragmatic reasons, developments in the areas of GATT and international trade law occurred outside their natural course, leading to the myth of a “self-contained” trade regime not part of public international law. The WTO, unlike its predecessor, enjoys a proper institutional framework and mandate; one can no longer use the excuse of institutional handicap for excluding it from the system of global governance. Liberalization of international trade has far-reaching consequences which are not limited to the trade arena and the WTO, its member states, and scholars of international trade law have to assume their role in the broader context of an international legal order. Non-state actors’ formal participation can contribute to striking a balance between different forces and interests at work in the area of trade liberalization and its interplay with other non-trade issues. After setting the framework for the study, the thesis outlines modes of participation of non-state actors in the creation and modification of WTO law as well as in its enfor

Face à l’urgence de diminuer les dépenses de santé, le développement des médicaments génériques, moins chers que les médicaments de marque, a été fortement encouragé tant par les institutions communautaires que par les pouvoirs publics nationaux. Le droit de la concurrence accompagne et protège le bon développement des marchés de ces produits. Les règles de concurrence protégent aussi bien la liberté de la concurrence que les intérêts individuels des opérateurs sur ces marchés. La sauvegarde de la liberté de la concurrence est assurée notamment par la sanction de certaines stratégies, adoptées par les laboratoires innovants, qui découragent ou retardent indûment l’entrée des génériques sur le marché. Les intérêts individuels des opérateurs sont préservés notamment par la possibilité d’agir en concurrence déloyale. L’application des règles de concurrence n’est cependant pas aisée et suscite bien des interrogations. L’éventuelle application des règles communautaires relatives aux aides d’Etat à certaines mesures favorisant les génériques au détriment des princeps ou encore la problématique de l’équilibre entre les règles de concurrence et celles de propriété industrielle sont autant de questions qui seront tranchées par les autorités et les juridictions dans les mois et années à venir. Dans les relations entre les médicaments génériques et le droit de la concurrence, les premiers ont aussi un rôle à jouer car ils contribuent non seulement à l’élargissement du champ d’application de ce droit mais également à son évolution à travers notamment l’identification de nouvelles pratiques abusives.

Türk Ticaret Kanunu'nda, ultra vires doktrininin etkisiyle, ticaret şirketlerinin ehliyetlerinin işletme konusuyla sınırlandırılması ölçütüne yer verilmiştir. Buna göre TTK.'nun 137. maddesinde ticaret şirketlerinin ehliyetinin işletme konusu çevresiyle sınırlı olduğu kabul edilmiştir. Anonim şirketlerin ehliyeti de TTK. m. 137 kapsamında işletme konusu çevresiyle sınırlandırılmıştır.İşletme konusu, ana sözleşmede yer alan ve şirketin faaliyet göstereceği iş alanlarını somut olarak ortaya koyan bir kavramdır. Sınırlı ehliyet ilkesinin sakıncalarını gidermek amacıyla işletme konusu kavramını geniş yorumlamak ve işletme konusu kapsamındaki faaliyetleri kolaylaştırmak adına yapılan işlem ve faaliyetleri işletme konusundan saymak gerekmektedir.Anonim şirketlerin ehliyetlerinin kapsam ve sınırları, anonim şirket temsilcilerinin yetkilerinin kapsam ve sınırlarını belirlemesi bakımından da önem taşımaktadır. Anonim şirketin ehliyetinin ve buna bağlı olarak temsilcilerinin yetkilerinin kapsam ve sınırlarının belirlenmesi, anonim şirket ortaklarının, alacaklılarının ve kamu menfaatinin korunması amacına da hizmet etmektedir.Ticaret şirketlerinin ve buna bağlı olarak anonim şirketlerin ehliyet dışı işlemleri, öğretide yer alan baskın görüşe göre yok hükmündedir. Ehliyet dışı yapılan işlemin yok hükmünde kabul edilmesi, bu işlemin hiç doğmadığı ve sonradan onay vermekle bu işleme geçerlilik kazandırılamayacağı anlamındadır.Ticaret şirketlerinin ve dolayısıyla anonim şirketlerin ehliyetinin işletme konusu çevresi ile sınırlandırılması ultra vires doktrini olarak ifade edilmektedir. Ultra vires doktrini İngiliz hukuku kaynaklı olup, şirketler hukuku bakımından şirketlerin hukuki ehliyetinin ana sözleşmelerinde yazılı olan konularıyla sınırlandırılması temeline dayanmaktadır. Günümüzde ultra vires doktrini terk edilmiştir. Nitekim Türk Ticaret Kanunu Tasarısı'nın ticaret şirketlerinin ehliyetini düzenleyen 125. maddesinde ultra vires doktrininin yansıması olan işletme konusu çevresiyle sınırlı ehliyet ilkesine yer verilmemiş olup ultra vires doktrininin yarattığı sakıncaları önlemek adına olumlu bir adım atılmıştır. The rule of limited capacity of companies in the frame of the objects clause, was given a place in the Turkish Commercial Code with effect of ultra vires doctrine. According to this, Article 137 of the Turkish Commercial Code stipulates that capacity of companies are limited in frame of the objects clause of the companies. Capacity of incorporated companies are also limited in frame of the objects clause according to Article 137 of the Turkish Commercial Code.Objects clause is a concept which takes place in the memorandum and which shows scope of the company. In order to remove inconveniences of principle of limited capacity, the transactions and activities made for widely interpreting the concept of objects clause and facilitating the activities in the cover of objects clause, are assumed in the frame of objects clause.Contents and limits of capacity of incorporated companies are significant with regard to defining contents and limits of power of directors of incorporated companies. Defining contents and limits of capacity of incorporated companies and whereupon defining content and limits of power of directors also serve the purpose of protecting share holders and creditors of incorporated companies and public interest Companies? transactions and whereupon incorporated companies? transactions, which are out of capacity are nul and void according to the dominant idea in the doctrine. Assuming the transactions that exceed the capacity of company as nul and void means that this transactions were never made and that further approving such transaction would not make it valid. Limited capacity of companies and whereupon of incorporated companies in frame of objects clause is called ultra vires doctrine. Ultra vires doctrine is of English Law origin and based on the limitation of capacity of the companies by the objects clause of the memorandum, with regard to the law of companies. Today, ultra vires doctrine is relinquished. As a matter of fact, Article 125 of the Scheme of Turkish Commercial Code regulating capacity of the companies did not give place the limited capacity principle which is a reflection of the ultra vires doctrine and took an important step in order to avoid the drawbacks of ultra vires doctrine.

My main theoretical contention is that status hierarchies provide a source of guidance to firms for resolving disputes. A status hierarchy implies a system of deference rules among firms. When disputes arise, deference rules can provide a basis for shared expectations and protocols of conduct about how technical ambiguities should be resolved. In many contexts, technical merit is difficult to assess. However, deference rules can operate as social conventions to which firms default, helping to align potentially incompatible expectations. Within this general framework, my dissertation examines how competitors in the semiconductor industry manage uncertain and frequently overlapping patent rights. In practice, patent rights are highly imperfect legal instruments when it comes to demarcating each firm's contributions to innovation in the industry. Patent disputes arise because of the ambiguity this creates about how much of the collective market returns to innovation each firm is entitled to receive. Despite the prolific patenting and propensity for disputes, the industry has remarkably not ground to a halt from runaway litigation. Litigation events, while significant, are rare. I suggest that this degree of order is, at least partly, attributable to status processes. Status can operate as a stabilizing force in the market, helping to generate orderly competition in the face of disputes. To examine whether this is the case in the semiconductor industry, I theorize that disputes are less easily resolved when the parties involved face greater status ambiguity, i.e. are less clearly differentiated from one another in status. Under status ambiguity, deference rules lose the rule-like, universal quality that makes them persuasive in resolving disputes. This has two consequences. First, firms facing low status ambiguity are less likely to be involved in patent litigation than are firms facing high status ambiguity. Patent litigation events represent failures to resolve patent disputes out of court. Second, firms facing low status ambiguity increase their product line sizes more than do firms facing high status ambiguity. The threat of difficult-to-resolve patent disputes represents a cost that can deter firms from bringing products to market.