Bibliographie sélective OHADA

As sociedades de propósito específico (SPEs) não configuram um tipo societário próprio, mas sim mera categoria eficacial autônoma. A investigação histórica do instituto evidencia raízes desde os tempos romanos, tendo reverberado, ainda, nos arranjos típicos do período medieval e nas codificações oitocentistas, revelando sua essência como uma necessidade comercial da vida prática de separar patrimônios em função de um propósito específico, com projeções internas e externas que foram moldadas ao longo do tempo para viabilizar a consecução de empreendimentos de alto risco e promover o desenvolvimento econômico. No Brasil, está presente desde o Código Comercial de 1850, tendo sido adotada por diversas legislações esparsas ao longo dos últimos séculos para as mais diversas funções, servindo como mola propulsora ao desenvolvimento econômico. Como categoria eficacial autônoma que é, goza de flexibilidade para ser aplicada a qualquer tipo societário, modulando os efeitos típicos que lhes são assegurados aos seus ordenamentos societário, patrimonial e da atividade em função do propósito específico almejado. Não por outro motivo, seguindo o que nos parece ser a melhor técnica, o legislador tratou sua previsão normativa expressa no dispositivo de que trata do objeto social, restringindo-o em função de um propósito específico. Aos aplicadores do direito, diante do desenvolvimento histórico do instituto de seus efeitos, cabe saber distingui-los e aplicá-los, de modo a assegurar a efetividade da categoria em nosso ordenamento jurídico e o desempenho de sua função socioeconômica moldada ao longo de tantos anos.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo analisar a mobilização de acionistas para as assembleias gerais de acionistas das companhias abertas. Em caráter preliminar, são traçadas algumas premissas sobre o direito de voto, o princípio majoritário, o absenteísmo dos acionistas nas assembleias gerais e algumas considerações sobre dispersão acionária e certos aspectos das minorias societárias. Em seguida, dedicam-se algumas seções aos interessados na mobilização dos acionistas, que podem ser múltiplos e incluem o próprio controlador ou o bloco de referência da companhia, a administração da companhia, os acionistas minoritários na manifestação mais comum da mobilização , e outros interessados que podem consistir em empregados, credores ou membros da sociedade em geral. Feitas essas considerações, a dissertação trata das finalidades jurídicas mais comuns buscadas com a mobilização dos acionistas como, exemplificativamente, a própria convocação das assembleias gerais, tomada das contas, deliberação sobre as demonstrações financeiras, destinação de resultados, eleição de membros do conselho de administração, instalação e eleição dos membros do conselho fiscal, a responsabilização do controlador ou dos administradores e certos eventos que diluem a participação acionária dos acionistas. Por fim, a dissertação trata de alguns instrumentos disponíveis no ordenamento jurídico que podem ser utilizados para a mobilização dos acionistas, como as assembleias digitais ou híbridas, o boletim de voto a distância, a representação de acionistas, o pedido público de procuração, o pedido de lista de acionistas, as mídias sociais, os voting advisors, o empréstimo de ações e o usufruto de ações. This work aims to analyze the mobilization of shareholders for general shareholders\' meetings of publicly traded companies. Preliminarily, some assumptions and premises are outlined regarding the right to vote, the majority principle, shareholder absenteeism at general meetings, and considerations on share dispersion and certain aspects of minority interests. Subsequently, several sections are dedicated to the stakeholders involved in mobilizing shareholders, which may include the controlling shareholder or the company\'s reference block, the company\'s management, minority shareholders in the most common form of mobilization and other interested parties that may consist of employees, creditors, or members of society in general. With these considerations in mind, the dissertation addresses the most common legal purposes sought with the mobilization of shareholders, such as, for example, convening general meetings, approval of financial statements, determination of results allocation, election of members of the board of directors, installation and election of members of the fiscal council, holding the controller or administrators accountable, and certain events that dilute shareholders\' equity participation. Finally, the dissertation discusses some legal instruments available that can be used for shareholder mobilization, such as digital or hybrid assemblies, distance voting bulletins, shareholder representation, public proxy solicitation, shareholder list request, social media, voting advisors, stock lending, and share usufruct.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo a análise da agregação dos credores em classes no âmbito da recuperação judicial, de acordo com a Lei n. 11.101/2005, e os impactos procedimentais e principiológicos neles englobados, tais como: a aprovação do plano de recuperação judicial, a agregação dos credores em classes, o sistema de votação e os princípios da par condicio creditorum e da preservação da empresa, extraindo desta análise lacunas e mecanismos criados que possam ter como consequência o desvirtuamento do fim almejado, sendo ao final apresentadas premissas e hipóteses de limitação e aplicação prática da agregação para evitar práticas abusivas. Dessa forma, são apresentadas breves noções introdutórias e fundamentais sobre a recuperação judicial acompanhada pela apresentação dos conceitos básicos referentes ao plano de recuperação judicial e a divisão dos credores em classes, demonstrando as origens, objetivos e expectativas do estabelecimento das classes na forma apresentada na Lei n. 11.101/2005. Ainda, são objetos específicos de estudo, a análise de como a divisão de classes de credores interfere na votação do plano de recuperação judicial e como tem sido tratada a possibilidade da criação de subclasses como é o caso do credor estratégico - e os efeitos diretos e indiretos ao procedimento e credores envolvidos. Em seguida, tem-se como objetivo verificar, no âmbito legal, as disposições sobre o tema a exemplo do artigo 41 da Lei n. 11.101/2005 -, as consequências e os impasses verificados ao longo dos anos de vigência de referida lei que demandam atenção e alterações para que o tratamento aos credores no âmbito da recuperação ocorra de forma mais justa e adequada aos interesses de todos os envolvidos. Assim, serão expostas soluções alternativas para a melhor condução do procedimento da recuperação judicial em relação às classes de credores e subdivisões em busca de garantir e preservar o objetivo da recuperação judicial, sempre considerando os fatores econômicos, políticos e sociais que influenciam para a análise da viabilidade econômica da empresa e que estão sempre em constante modificação. This work aims to analyze the aggregation of creditors into classes within the scope of judicial reorganization in accordance with Law No. 11.101/2005, as well as the procedural and principled impacts involved, such as the approval of the judicial reorganization plan, the aggregation of creditors into classes, the voting system, and the principles of par condicio creditorum and preservation of the company. It aims to identify gaps and mechanisms that may lead to the distortion of the intended purpose and presents premises and hypotheses for limiting and practically implementing the topic to avoid abusive practices. Thus, this work presents brief introductory and fundamental notions about judicial reorganization by the presentation of basic concepts related to the judicial reorganization plan and the division of creditors into classes, demonstrating the origins, objectives, and expectations of the establishment of classes as presented in Law No. 11.101/2005. Furthermore, specific study objectives include analyzing how the division of classes of creditors affects the voting on the judicial reorganization plan and how the possibility of creating subclasses - such as strategic creditors - has been addressed and its direct and indirect effects on the procedure and involved creditors. Next, this work verifies the legal provisions on the topic - such as Article 41 of Law No. 11.101/2005 as well as the consequences and impasses observed throughout the years of the law\'s existence that demands attention and changes to ensure that treatment of creditors in the context of reorganization occurs in a more just and appropriate manner for all parties involved. Thereby, alternative solutions will be presented for better management of the judicial reorganization procedure regarding creditor classes and subdivisions to ensure and preserve the objective of judicial reorganization, always considering the economic, political, and social factors that influence the analysis of the company\'s economic viability, which are constantly changing.

Demand guarantees are essential for purposes of commerce and are used to secure the performance of the contractor. South African courts have held that demand guarantees are akin to letters of credit. Despite the independent nature of demand guarantees to the underlying contract, in circumstances where the beneficiary has made a fraudulent claim, the guarantor may dishonour the demand or claim. South African courts have indicated that if the underlying contract is illegal, courts may intervene by granting an interdict to stop payment under the guarantee. The South African law recognises traditional guarantees (often called suretyship) where the beneficiary, when making a demand or claim, must demonstrate liability on the part of the contractor. There are instances where courts have held that guarantees were of a nature akin to suretyship. In South Africa, parties entering into a demand guarantee contract are subject to the common law of contract. The Uniform Rules for Demand Guarantees, adopted by the International Chamber of Commerce, are only applied by explicit reference in the demand guarantee failing which such rules do not apply. Non-implementation of these rules has resulted in rigorous litigation in the recent years on this subject-matter. A demand must be supported by documents and require strict conformity. However, strict compliance with the prerequisites of the demand guarantee has not been applied consistently in South Africa. South African courts have recently been applying substantial compliance, in certain circumstances finding that a term in a guarantee is just directory and not obligatory. Furthermore, on many occasions, courts have deviated from strict compliance holding that a term in a guarantee does not make commercial sense thus such term is not mandatory. In this way, courts apply the most business-sensible interpretation when interpreting demand guarantees.

In South Africa, before the Financial Advisory and Intermediaries Services Act (FAIS Act) and other insurance laws came into existence, intermediary services regarding the rendering of insurance products have always been regulated by the law of agency and mandate. This means that the Roman-Dutch principles provided for the standards to which the conduct of intermediaries was to comply with when rendering insurance services. The mandate of intermediaries in terms of the Roman-Dutch Principles also included the fact that they had to act with care, skill and in good faith. When the FAIS Act came into operation, it introduced several detailed rules and minimum standards for insurance intermediaries to comply with, and these minimum standards are not limited to qualifications, experiences and characteristics of honesty and integrity that an intermediary must comply with, but they also stipulated in detail what an intermediary must do when discharging insurance intermediary duties. The FAIS Act is the leading legislation when it comes to the regulation of intermediary services. The FAIS Act, under section 16, provides for a General Code of Conduct for Authorised Financial Services Providers and their Representative (GCC), which contains a set of rules that are applicable to all intermediaries. These rules under the GCC are aimed at ensuring that insurance customers are provided with material facts that will enable them to make a prior informed decision and that their reasonable financial needs concerning insurance products will be carefully considered so that they can be provided with a product that will be suitable to satisfy their needs. Furthermore, in terms of South African laws and practices, intermediaries play an essential role in the creation of legally binding insurance contracts. Insurance businesses are concluded through intermediaries. Considering that many insurance companies are juristic persons, and they can only conduct business by means of human agents, insurance laws make it compulsory for intermediaries to have skills, knowledge, and experience regarding insurance products that they are rendering to insurance customers. It is commonly believed that intermediaries with skills, knowledge and experience, they always act in the best interest of the client, and they ask relevant questions to assist the clients to disclose all material facts, and they always make sure that material facts are clearly communicated/disclosed to the insurer and insured to avoid future conflicts. The legal framework placed a duty on the intermediary to assist the insured to disclose all material facts and to explain all clauses contained in the insurance contract which may lead to the insurer repudiate its liability. Furthermore, an intermediary is at all material times expected to first consider the financial situation of the potential insured before determines a cover that will be best suitable for the insured’s needs. However, despite the best guidelines outlined by applicable insurance laws and regulations, mistakes are still being made by intermediaries, which lead to insurance customers to suffer the consequences of impractical intermediary services, and that has resulted in numerous complaints, legal disputes, debarments, and other regulatory actions. As a result of intermediaries’ continuous misconduct, insurers have been repudiating claims, and it has created a presumption that insurers conduct businesses to enrich themselves instead of protecting the interests of their customers as required by regulating legal framework. Therefore, so many people have lost confidence in the insurance industry due to unlimited court cases and complaints arising from misconduct or omissions of intermediaries, such as their failure to disclose material facts to the parties. Once it is found that material facts were not fully disclosed between the insurer and insured, both parties would have been deprived of their right to make an informed decision before consenting or signing a legally binding contract. Therefore, a need is created for intermediaries to be educated of their legal duties when rendering insurance services and that will help strengthen or restore the confidence of the public towards insurance industry.

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Mergers in the Italian and European legal system. The Italian legal landscape for mergers. Applicable regulations. Stages of the merger process. The first phase: the merger plan. The second phase: the merger resolution. The third phase: the merger deed. The protection of creditors. The invalidity of the merger. The FIAT-Chrysler merger. Evolution of the legal nature of mergers in the Italian legal system: legislative and jurisprudential perspectives. The extinguishing-successory orientation. The evolutionary–modifying orientation. Court of cassation ruling no. 2637 of 2006. Return to the extinguishing-successory orientation: judgement no. 21970/2021. Debate surrounding judgement 21970/2021: criticism and support. Mergers in the American legal system. The American legal landscape for mergers. The evolution of the US corporate law of mergers. Sources of corporate law. The merger process. Economic motives for mergers. Steps of the merger procedure. The merger plan. Merger between parent and subsidiary or between subsidiaries. Articles of merger. Effects of merger. Abandonment of a merger or share exchange. The ExxonMobil merger. Comparative analysis of the Italian and American legal systems. Historical and constitutional influences on Italian and American legal systems. Differences and similarities in the merger process. Comparison of FIAT Chrysler and ExxonMobil mergers.

This thesis focuses on the relationship between contract law and corporate insolvency law as it investigates the idea and protection of executory contracts within restructuring proceedings. However, preserving these agreements frequently necessitates taking legal action against established contract law tenets like the freedom of contract and the duty to perform. The study looks at how difficult it can be to keep debtor and creditor interests in balance, especially when there are disruptions brought on by insolvency. The study suggests ways to improve the efficacy of restructuring proceedings by analysing the EU Directive on restructuring and insolvency, contrasting practices in various jurisdictions, and evaluating the impact on stakeholders. The goal of this study is to protect the rights of all parties involved in corporate restructuring while advancing the creation of legal frameworks that facilitate effective restructuring.

An array of governance initiatives has emerged to address forced labour and labour exploitation in global value chains (GVCs). Drawing on the transnational business governance interactions theoretical framework, as well as Timothy Bartley’s place-conscious transnational governance model, this thesis examines the interaction between two of these hybrid forms of governance: multi-stakeholder initiatives and corporate sustainability laws. I conduct a case study of the cocoa sector, and specifically of the multinational company, Nestlé, using multiple qualitative research methods including legal analysis, key informant interviews, and documentary analysis. My research suggests that the layering of corporate sustainability laws, and particularly the French Duty of Vigilance Law, on top of CSR and MSIs in the cocoa sector, is not addressing the governance gap that permits corporations to evade accountability for human rights abuses in their supply chain. I find that the introduction of corporate sustainability laws may have contributed to a decrease in Nestlé's efforts to address labor violations in certain areas, while in others, it appears to have supported the continuation of existing practices. This raises implications for the continuous efforts in various jurisdictions to introduce these laws as a solution to the shortcomings of private, voluntary rule-making systems. Further research is required to explore how these governance mechanisms are interacting in other sectors, in companies of different sizes, and within various types of MSIs. This will help identify the factors that influence interactions and shed further light on the path forward for policymakers.

Workplace bullying is not considered a form of harassment that is commonly acknowledged nor does it attract specific legislative protection. The aim of this mini-dissertation is to ascertain the degree to which victims of workplace bullying are protected by South African labour legislation and whether other measures are necessary to ensure that employees are adequately protected. A comparative analysis between South Africa and the United Kongdom's legislative frameworks that governs workplace violence and harassment and, by implication, bullying is a critical aspect of this mini-dissertation.

Tax authorities have always assessed and enforced taxes based on the physical address of businesses over the years. Nevertheless, the idea of tax jurisdiction has taken on a new meaning with the development of information and communication technology, and its profound impact on every facet of human existence – including but not restricted to trade and business. This development has undoubtedly increased capital mobility, especially in corporate form, and exposed more the weaknesses in national tax laws by enabling the artificial relocation of important economic components and potential exemption from taxes. Since it is getting harder to separate the digital economy from the rest of the economy for taxation reasons, the process of digitalization has emerged as one of the primary growth drivers. This expansion, together with aggressive tax planning strategies used by multinational enterprises (MNEs) to move revenues to low-tax jurisdictions and the development of business models requiring less physical presence, has increased the workload for tax administrators; furthermore, it has reduced governments’ capacity to raise funds in the traditional manner. In this regard, I assess how “adequate” the selected African countries’ frameworks are vis-à-vis the ongoing OECD and UN negotiations. Beyond the consultations, I call for a more inclusive and Africanised approach and the need for African countries to improve their tax administration mechanisms.

Objetivo: Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo compreender as motivações que levam os contabilistas acreditados da Guiné-Bissau a se afiliarem à Ordem dos Contabilistas, bem como identificar e compreender as barreiras enfrentadas pelos contabilistas que não são afiliados, com o intuito de propor estratégias que incentivem a afiliação e promovam o desenvolvimento profissional do contabilista no país. Método: Foi utilizada uma abordagem qualitativa. Entrevistas semiestruturadas foram conduzidas com contabilistas acreditados e não acreditados para explorar suas percepções e experiências. A análise de conteúdo foi empregada para interpretar os dados, destacando as motivações para a afiliação e as barreiras enfrentadas pelos não afiliados. Resultado: Os resultados demonstram que os contabilistas acreditados entrevistados não consideram a existência de barreiras. Já os contabilistas não inscritos na ordem mostram-se motivados para se inscreverem na ordem, uma vez que isso lhes permite ter acesso à formação contínua e alcançar estatuto como profissionais de qualidade. Contribuição: A contribuição desta pesquisa consiste em enriquecer o estudo da profissionalização da contabilidade. Igualmente, irá contribuir para uma melhor compreensão do estado da profissão contabilística na Guiné-Bissau. Além disso, dada a inexistência de literatura sobre o tema, este estudo irá ajudar a aumentar o conhecimento das difíceis situações com que os contabilistas acreditados e não acreditados se deparam no exercício das suas funções na Guiné-Bissau.

O direito civil admite a extinção voluntária e unilateral de certas relações contratuais. A esse fenômeno genericamente considerado pode ser dado o nome de recesso contratual, ou em vernáculo, denúncia e resilição. Subjacente a esse nome há três espécies de negócios unilaterais, com tipicidade quanto aos pressupostos, efeitos e meios de controle do direito potestativo que os fundamenta. A hipótese é a de que o abuso do direito (ou exercício inadmissível de posição jurídica, na figura parcelar do venire contra factum prorium, por intermédio da boa-fé) é o meio de correção de injustiças que escapam aos esquemas tipicizantes do exercício de poderes de acordo com a ideia intermediária de espécies de recesso. A noção de inadmissibilidade é semanticamente aberta e decorre da impossibilidade da lei ou dos negócios jurídicos regularem todos os comportamentos possíveis dos sujeitos de direito, demandando um juízo corretivo preter legem. Porém, essa delimitação é consequência, primeiramente, dos fundamentos, pressupostos e do exercício regular do negócio de recesso (em seus respectivos tipos). Em seguida, é possível analisar a abusividade do recesso em três frentes possíveis e apresentar as depurações dogmáticas que a proibição do venire contra factum proprium pode oferecer para a solução dos casos concretos. The Civil Law allows the voluntary and unilateral termination of certain contractual relationships. This phenomenon can generically be called recesso, or denunciation and resiliation. Underlying this name, there are three types of unilateral acts, typical in terms of the premises, effects and means of controlling the potestative right on which they are based. The hypothesis is that the abuse of the right (or the inadmissible exercise of a legal position, in the partial figure of venire contra factum prorium, through good faith) is the means of correcting injustices that escape the typical schemes of the exercise of powers according to the intermediate idea of species of recesso. The notion of inadmissibility is semantically open and stems from the impossibility of the law or legal transactions regulating all the possible behavior of the subjects of law, requiring a preter legem corrective judgment. However, this delimitation is a consequence, firstly, of the foundations and premises and the regular exercise of the terminations act (in their respective types). It is then possible to analyze the abusiveness of withdrawal on three possible fronts and present the dogmatic perfectioning that the prohibition of venire contra factum proprium can offer for the solution of specific cases.

The African Continental Free Trade Area as a flagship project of Agenda 2063 represents renewed attempts by the African Union to drive the continent closer to its economic integration ambitions, which can be formally traced back to the adoption of the African Declaration on Cooperation, Development, and Economic Independence, and later the Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community. Building on these frameworks, the AfCFTA seeks to, amongst others, advance intra-African trade by creating a single market for goods and services facilitated by the movement of persons, promoting sustainable and inclusive socio-economic growth, creating a liberalised market for goods and services, and promoting industrial development. Central to the attainment of the objectives of the AfCFTA is a well-functioning and effective institutional framework at a continental, regional, and national level all well-integrated to facilitate and oversee its implementation. The strengthening of regional and continental institutions to effectively lead and drive Africa’s transformation agenda has also been recognised by Agenda 2063 as a key enabler to this end. The demise of previous African integration efforts has mainly been attributed to the weakness of regional and continental organs to be able to effectively oversee and administer the implementation of continental programmes by the countries. This thesis appraises the institutional framework established to oversee the implementation, administration, facilitation, and monitoring of the AfCFTA, and this is considered against the broader African Union institutional framework and the regional economic communities. Although vastly different, the thesis further considers the experience and best practices from the European Union regional integration model to draw lessons and with a view to reforming and integrating African continental and regional bodies to be able to effectively oversee key initiatives including the AfCFTA. Finally, the thesis considers some of the work already initiated by the AU to review and reconfigure the extant continental bodies and then recommends some key interventions to reinforce and better integrate the institutional framework of the AfCFTA with the existing continental and regional frameworks.

Ce mémoire porte sur l’usage particulier des flexibilités du droit des brevets en matière de technologies vertes. Bien que les études empiriques concernant les effets du droit des brevets sur l’innovation en matière de technologies vertes soient peu nombreuses et que les effets du droit des brevets sur l’innovation en général soient incertains, la justification du brevet comme incitatif à l’innovation semble encadrer les réflexions sur l’usage des flexibilités du droit des brevets. Ce constat nous sert de porte d’entrée pour explorer la relation évolutive des justifications et des flexibilités du droit des brevets. Dans un premier temps, nous étudions l’évolution du droit des brevets, en mettant l’accent sur comment il a été justifié et comment les premiers régimes étaient modulés en fonction du contexte social dans lequel ils s’inscrivaient. Dans un second temps, nous observons l’influence de la justification dominante du droit des brevets, soit la fonction d’incitatif à l’innovation, sur l’interprétation des flexibilités prévues dans l’Accord sur les ADPIC et le discours les concernant. Cette étude met en lumière que les mêmes justifications ont fondé des régimes différents, notamment dans l’espace accordé aux flexibilités, et montre que cette place a été restreinte au fil du temps. Nous concluons en avançant que l’étude de l’usage des flexibilités des brevets en matière de technologies vertes reste à ses débuts. Plus d’études empiriques sur le sujet sont nécessaires et celles-ci doivent entrer en dialogue avec les fonctions autres du droit des brevets que celle de l’incitatif à l’innovation.

Este trabalho buscou investigar as dimensões das patentes no mercado, sobretudo no âmbito de medicamentos essenciais, à luz de suas funções socioeconômica e concorrencial. O problema que se buscou investigar é o seguinte: quais são os possíveis impactos das patentes de medicamentos no mercado? A hipótese explorada foi a de que as patentes de medicamentos podem servir de instrumentos de consolidação de poder econômico na medida em que podem se prestar a moldar a estrutura de mercado e, com isso, contribuir para um cenário de desequilíbrio de poder econômico e um mercado tendente à concentração. Para que essa hipótese pudesse ser explorada, foi preciso, primeiro, investigar as premissas estruturais das patentes, com o intuito de verificar a natureza jurídica do instituto, os requisitos de patenteamento e de que forma a proteção das patentes aos medicamentos foram fruto de uma opção política internacional. Na sequência, investigou-se as principais funções que as patentes exercem, notadamente a função social, econômica e concorrencial. Indispensável, nesse ponto, foi traçar a correlação entre as funções das patentes, especialmente a função concorrencial, e o interesse público. A partir disso, foi possível perceber que as patentes de medicamentos essenciais podem moldar a estrutura de mercado e, embora tenham claras limitações e devam servir ao interesse público, podem gerar custos informacionais, de acesso e de inovação, sendo passíveis de criarem distorções de mercado que podem inviabilizar o acesso à saúde. As patentes e esses custos apresentam direta relação com o desenvolvimento econômico. Em razão disso, é preciso que o exercício do direito de patente (que não é e tampouco deve ser considerado abusivo per se) seja analisado à luz do cumprimento das funções socioeconômica e concorrencial que exercem. É preciso, ainda, avaliar em que medida os custos que esse exercício produz suplantariam os benefícios sociais decorrentes da tecnologia patenteada. A partir dessas investigações, observou-se que a legislação atual conta com alguns mecanismos que visam dar cumprimento a essas funções, como é o caso do abuso de direito e da licença compulsória. O abuso de direito mediante o exercício das patentes pode ser classificado de acordo com o grau dos interesses envolvidos, o que influencia diretamente na consequência e no remédio a ser utilizado. Observou-se, também, que o abuso de patente se desenvolveu de tal modo que se tornou, inclusive, estratégia de defesa, como é o caso da chamada patent misuse. Por sua vez, o licenciamento compulsório se apresenta como uma solução temporariamente eficaz, muito embora historicamente o uso do licenciamento compulsória tenha ocorrido timidamente. Estes instrumentos, contudo, não são suficientes, de forma que a criação de alternativas que, a um só tempo, viabilizem o acesso à saúde e criam outros incentivos ao investimento em P&D por parte dos agentes econômicos se afigura essencial. This paper sought to investigate the dimensions of patents in the market, especially in the field of essential medicines, in the light of their socio-economic and competitive functions. The problem we sought to investigate is the following: what are the possible impacts of drug patents on the market? The hypothesis explored was that drug patents can serve as instruments for consolidating economic power insofar as they can be used to shape the structure of the market and thus contribute to a scenario of unbalanced economic power and a market tending towards concentration. In order to explore this hypothesis, it was first necessary to investigate the structural premises of patents, to verify the legal nature of the institute, the patenting requirements and how the protection of patents on medicines was the result of an international political choice. Next, the main functions that patents perform were investigated, particularly their social, economic, and competitive functions. At this point, it was essential to analyze the correlation between the functions of patents, especially the competitive function, and the public interest. From this, it was possible to see that patents on essential medicines can shape the market structure and, although they have clear limitations and should serve the public interest, they can generate informational, access and innovation costs, which can create market distortions that can make access to health unfeasible. Patents and these costs are directly related to economic development. For this reason, the exercise of patent rights (which are not and should not be considered abusive per se) must be analyzed in the light of the fulfillment of their socio-economic and competitive functions. It is also necessary to assess the extent to which the costs produced by this exercise outweigh the social benefits derived from the patented technology. Based on these investigations, it was observed that current legislation has some mechanisms aimed at fulfilling these functions, such as the abuse of rights and compulsory licensing. The abuse of rights through the exercise of patents can be classified according to the degree of the interests involved, which directly influences the consequence and the remedy to be used. It was also observed that patent abuse has developed to such an extent that it has even become a defense strategy, such as patent misuse. For its part, compulsory licensing appears to be a temporarily effective solution, although historically the use of compulsory licensing has been timid. These instruments, however, are not enough, so the creation of alternatives that, at the same time, enable access to health and create other incentives for investment in R&D by economic agents is essential.

Exchange platforms listed on European markets: financial contamination? The Luna collapse: present-day exposé. Aògorithmic stablecoins. The Luna project and the Terra ecosystem. Legal framework of a billion-dollar scam. Class action lawsuits. National and European implications of such actions. Misleading advertising (binance's liability) and culpa in eligendo. Exchange platforms listed on European markets: financial contamination? Parallels between shares and cryptocurrency investments: lack of transparency giving rise to bubbles. InvestVoyager case study. FTX case study. Positive law and new horizons. DeFi self-regulation: AML compliance and exchange platforms. The proposal of MiCA regulation (markets in crypto-assets). Payment systems directive 2 (PSD2). Directive 2009/110/EC on e-money. Potential solutions (proposals). External audit of smart contracts: a comprehensive examination-technical and legal perspectives. Digital euro. Establishment of a national or European commission: risks for consumers and comparative research. Regulation of exchanges and enforcement of transparency obligations.

Ce mémoire analyse la place juridique du marchand dans les sociétés camerounaise et québécoise. Le droit a toujours cherché à catalyser les activités des marchands en régulant l’accès à leur profession, en contrôlant leurs activités et en leur imposant de nombreuses obligations. La préoccupation des législateurs québécois et camerounais vis-à-vis de l’entité qu’est le marchand est palpable, les nombreuses lois mises sur pied pour encadrer ce personnage en témoignent. Le droit camerounais et le droit québécois abordent le sujet du marchand de façon différente. Nous verrons que dans l’appellation et dans le régime applicable à cette entité, le législateur québécois et son homologue camerounais se retrouvent la majorité du temps aux antipodes l’un de l’autre, mais il arrive parfois que leurs règles présentent des similitudes. Les nombreuses règles mises en place par les législateurs pour réguler les actions du marchand vont nous amener à examiner l’importance que ce dernier a au sein de la société. Conscients du pouvoir que le marchand peut avoir, les législateurs n’ont-ils pas fixé un grand nombre de règles par peur que ce dernier abuse de ce pouvoir ? Cette interrogation nous mènera au dernier volet de ce mémoire qui consistera à analyser les rapports de forces entre le marchand et les consommateurs premièrement, et entre le marchand et l’État en seconde place. L’intérêt de cette recherche est en premier lieu juridique évidemment. En effet, au cours de notre étude, nous verrons des notions telles que la commercialité et ses éléments constitutifs et nous ouvrirons le débat sur son utilité et sa désuétude. Nous aborderons également le rôle joué par le commerçant dans le processus de globalisation du droit et la création d’un droit post-moderne. En plus d’avoir un intérêt juridique, ce sujet révèle également un intérêt socio-économique car il nous amènera à aborder la notion de « commerçant de fait », une entité apparue à cause de la précarité économique et sociale à laquelle la majorité des pays africains fait face. This study analyzes the legal place of the merchant in Cameroonian and Quebec societies. The law has always sought to catalyze the activities of merchants by regulating access to their profession, controlling their activities and imposing numerous obligations on them. The concern of Quebecer and Cameroonian legislators concerning the merchant is palpable, the large number of laws put in place to regulate this character testify to it. Cameroonian law and Quebec law approach the subject of the merchant in different ways. We will see that in the calling and in the regime applicable to this entity, the Quebecer legislator and its Cameroonian counterpart find themselves most of the time at opposite ends, but sometimes it happens that their rules present similarities. The rules put in place by legislators to regulate the actions of the merchant will lead us to examine the importance that the latter has within society. Aware of the power that the merchant can have, haven't the legislators set a large number of rules for fear that the latter will abuse this power? This question will lead us to the last part of this study which will consist in analyzing the balance of power between the merchant and the consumers first, and between the merchant and the State in second place. The interest of this research is obviously primarily legal. Indeed, during our study, we will see notions such as commerciality and its constituent elements and we will open the debate on its usefulness and its obsolescence. We will also discuss the role played by the merchant in the process of globalization of law and the creation of post-modern law. In addition to having a legal interest, this subject also reveals a socio-economic interest because it will lead us to approach the notion of "commerçant de fait", an entity that appeared because of the economic and social precariousness to which the majority of Africans countries faces.

يتطلب توحيد قواعد قانون التجارة الدولية جهودا ووسائل معتبرة، الأمر الذي جعل المنظمات الدولية الحكومية هي التي تتكفّل بهذه المهمّة. وتنقسم هذه المنظمات الدولية الحكومية إلى منظمات دولية عالمية، ومنظمات دولية إقليمية. اتبعت هذه الأخيرة أساليب متعددة للتوحيد، من اتفاقيات دولية وقوانين نموذجية وقوانين موحّدة. وأمام تعدّد أساليب التوحيد هذه، يجب اختيار الأسلوب الأكثر ملاءمة لضمان فعّالية عملية التوحيد. لكن، رغم الجهود المبذولة من قبل هذه المنظمات، فإنها لم تصل إلى التوحيد الكلّي لهذه القواعد، وذلك بسبب اختلاف الأنظمة السياسية والاجتماعية للدول، فلم يشمل التوحيد إلاّ بعض مجالات القانون. كما بقيت القواعد الموحدة صعبة التطبيق لاختلاف تفسيرها من جهة، ولقلّة خبرة القضاة والمحكّمين في هذا المجال من جهة أخرى. L'unification des règles du droit du commerce international nécessite des efforts et des moyens considérables, ce pourquoi cette tâche a été confiée aux organisations gouvernementales internationales. Ces organisations intergouvernementales sont divisées en organisations internationales mondiales et organisations internationales régionales.Ces dernières ont suivi de multiples méthodes d’unification, notamment des accords internationaux, des lois types et des lois unifiées.Face à ces multiples méthodes d’unification, il faut choisir la méthode laplus appropriée pour garantir l’efficacité du processus d’unification. Cependant, malgré les efforts déployés par ces organisations, elles ne sont pas parvenues à une unification complète de ces règles, en raison des différences entre les systèmes politiques et sociaux des pays. L'unification n'a porté que sur certains domaines du droit. Les règles unifiées restent également difficiles à appliquer en raison de leurs interprétations différentes d'une part, et du manque d'expérience des juges et des arbitres dans ce domaine, d'autre part.