Bibliographie sélective OHADA

The trust figure in South Africa has undergone an interesting process of evolution during the last century – from a mere gratuity or private tax evasion tool to a proper family protection, business entity, investment, and structured finance vehicle. Its flexibility and multi-functionality positioned the trust as an ideal legal institution for many innovative ideas in the search for holistic business structures, economic empowerment transactions, general estate planning and risk protection initiatives, and ultimately, its application as financial instrument and structured finance entity. The development of both traditional and synthetic securitisation schemes in South Africa has been investigated, with some emphasis on the application of the special purpose institution, which may be in trust form. It is submitted that the application of the trust figure has developed without any significant contribution from the local legislator. A sound legal and regulatory framework is crucial for the creation of a strong future environment for legal and financial vehicles. The question is, however, whether the current South African legal framework for the application of the business trust, and also as a vehicle for financial instruments, is adequately sound and robust in light of the standards set in the international business and financial environment. It is submitted that the hybrid nature of the South African legal landscape is conducive for the development of sound legal systems in an ever-changing legal and economic reality. It is further submitted that in the development of proper legal frameworks, South Africa should position itself particularly in its context as a Southern African developing democracy. The South African trust development is compared with that of some foreign jurisdictions as well as with international conventions and treaties of relevance. Some recommendations for necessary changes are made and it is submitted that such future development of the trust figure should not take place haphazardly, but within the context of a structured regulatory model

"En l'absence de Convention multilatérale adoptée par la Communauté internationale régissant le domaine de l'exploration et l'exploitation des ressources naturelles, cette thèse de doctorat contribue à identifier un nouvel encadrement juridique substantif et processuel international ayant une valeur stabilisatrice des investissements pétroliers et miniers transnationaux. En effet, le contrôle de l'exploitation des ressources naturelles a été de tout temps une préoccupation pour les États. Dans les années 60, il a fait l'objet des tensions entre pays du Nord et du Sud en prévision d'un Nouvel Ordre Économique Mondial. Ces tensions ont connu une issue avec l'adoption à l'ONU de certains instruments et résolutions qui plaçaient le domaine des ressources naturelles sous la souveraineté de chaque État. Le régime de stabilisation des contrats d'investissement pétroliers et miniers procédait alors par des garanties de protection gouvernementales, toutefois fréquemment remises en cause par les États en cas de nécessité. Ainsi, advenant un conflit, la protection des droits des compagnies extractives étrangères n'était recherchée qu'auprès des tribunaux de l'État partie au contrat, à défaut de recourir à la protection diplomatique qu'offre leur État de nationalité. Face aux risques politiques, les juristes internationalistes ont proposé un régime fondé sur des techniques contractuelles de stabilisation, de gel et d'intangibilité par lesquelles les États hôtes renoncent à l'exercice de leurs prérogatives souveraines. Ces dernières années, ce régime traditionnel a subi de profondes mutations attribuées notamment au passage du contrat de concession au contrat de partage de production ainsi qu'à la multiplication des traités de couverture des investissements dans un contexte géopolitique grâce à l'entrée en jeu des pays émergents comme la Chine, l'Inde, l'Afrique du sud et le Brésil. Face à ces mutations, le débat juridique sur la stabilisation s'est reposé en termes d'enjeux nouveaux qui justifient de vérifier en droit, l'hypothèse de l'émergence d'un nouvel encadrement du droit public international positif et procédural des investissements pétroliers et miniers transnationaux. L'étude de cette hypothèse adopte les modes contractuel et extracontractuel comme structure des deux parties de notre thèse à partir desquelles s'articulent les régimes classique et nouveau de stabilisation. La première partie, envisage la stabilisation par l'élection du droit international public au titre de lex contractus qui s'applique par référence ou par rattachement et par l'arbitrage conventionnel suivant lequel, la validité de l'engagement donnée par les pays fournisseurs dans le contrat participe à la levée de leurs prérogatives souveraines tenant à l'immunité de juridiction et d'exécution. La seconde, cherche à mettre en évidence l'émergence d'un nouvel encadrement de stabilisation des investissements pétroliers et miniers à l'abri de la protection diplomatique, au sein duquel participe un double corpus international. Un corps de règles substantives de traitement et de protection dont l'application pourrait garantir une stabilisation efficace. Un autre corps de règles régissant la procédure internationale de résolution des litiges pétroliers et miniers transnationaux statuant sur la distribution des compétences domestiques et dénationalisées. Dans ce cadre, les compagnies d'énergie et leurs actionnaires acquièrent une capacité processuelle dans l'ordre international. Il envisage enfin, l'application du principe d'exclusivité des recours dénationalisés comme solution au conflit de juridictions et de décisions."

This thesis was submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and awarded by Brunel University.This dissertation examines the tension inherent in the relationship between the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) as Member States Parties of the GATT/WTO and the GATT/WTO regime. It focuses specifically on the tension triggered off by the requirements of Article I – the Most-Favoured-Nation principle (MFN) and Article III – the National Treatment principle (NT) GATT 1994. It shows that while the non-discrimination principles are meant to promote trade liberalisation and economic growth, they produce the opposite effect in developing and least developed countries like ECOWAS and aggravate the tension between those countries and the WTO. It argues that the MFN is used to deny market access to the developing countries by exposing them to stiff but unequal competitive conditions and the NT to deny national governments the policy space to protect and promote national industries, employment and economic growth. It challenges the general assumption that the MFN and the NT are good and in the interest of all the WTO Members and rather identifies them as lynch-pins of economic development in the ECOWAS region. It also shows, contrary to the assumption of non-participation, how the ECOWAS High Contracting Parties are adapting their trading systems and harmonising their laws to the key provisions of Articles I and III of the GATT. It shows that the principles of non-discrimination are the outcome of the standard-setting procedures legally formulated as the SPS and TBT Agreements which favour the developed countries and how the Dispute Settlement Body has rejected the ‘aims-and-effect’ approach, taken a literal approach, overly emphasising trade liberalisation to the neglect of market access and economic development. This dissertation concludes that it is pre-mature for ECOWAS to assume Articles I and III obligations and recommends using the provisions of Article XXIV to build up effective influence through regional organisations and incrementally uniting to transform the GATT.This study is funded by the Brunel Law School

La société anonyme du droit de l’Organisation pour l’harmonisation en Afrique du droit des affaires (OHADA) peut-elle encore être identifiée par ses critères fondamentaux ? La question mérite d’être posée dès lors que la société anonyme s’est approprié la limitation de la mobilité des actionnaires et le risque illimité et que la validité des stipulations contractuelles y est admise. Le déclin des critères traditionnels d’identification de la société anonyme fait renaître la recherche d’un critère adapté. Le législateur de l’OHADA consacre la notion d’appel public à l’épargne. Parmi les hypothèses d’identification de la société anonyme faisant appel public à l’épargne, le cercle de détenteurs des titres semble être un indice de distinction de ce type de sociétés. Celle-ci est administrée soit par un administrateur général, soit par un conseil d’administration. Ce dernier est dirigé soit par un président-directeur général, soit par un président du conseil d’administration. Dans la dernière modalité de direction du conseil d’administration, la direction de la société est assurée par le directeur général. Le législateur de l’OHADA laisse la libre initiative aux actionnaires. Dans ce cas, la structure de l’organe d’administration de la société dissociant l’administration de la direction serait un nouveau critère d’identification de la véritable société anonyme du droit de l’OHADA.

Le développement du droit communautaire en Afrique de l’Ouest couvre aujourd’hui un large champ qui s’étend aux investissements demeurés au lendemain des indépendances des États africains dans le périmètre de leur souveraineté. Les enjeux actuels du droit international des investissements, en raison des exigences de la mondialisation des économies, ont contraint les États de l’espace CEDEAO et UEMOA, importateurs de capitaux, à faire converger leur réglementation des investissements afin de favoriser leur attractivité et d’en tirer le meilleur parti. La difficulté d’un tel objectif réside dans la nécessité d’arriver à concilier leurs intérêts avec ceux des investisseurs, qui ne sont pas toujours convergents. The development of community law in West Africa nowadays covers a wide field extending to investments which, in the aftermath of independence, remained within the scope of sovereignty of African states. The current challenges of international investment law, because of the requirements of economic globalisation, have compelled ECOWAS and WAEMU countries, as importers of capital, to ensure convergence of their investment regulations so as to make them more attractive and to get the most out of them. The difficulty of such an objective lies in the need to successfully reconcile their interests with those of investors, which do not always converge.

Ekonomi, finans ve hukuk bilimleri açısından farklı anlamlara gelen sermaye, başta pay sahipleri ve ortaklık alacaklıları olmak üzere, ileride pay sahibi olması muhtemel kişileri, ortaklıkla ilişki halinde olan diğer gerçek ve tüzel kişileri ve şirketlerin vergi mükellefi olması nedeniyle de devleti yakından ilgilendiren bir kavramdır. İktisadi faaliyetlerin yürütülmesinde hayati önemi haiz sermayenin çeşitli ekonomik nedenlerle ihtiyari ya da sermaye kaybında olduğu gibi zorunlu nedenlerle azaltılması mümkündür.Sermaye azaltımı müessesesi Türk Ticaret Kanunu'nun (TTK) 473, 474 ve 475'inci maddelerinde düzenlenmiştir. Sermayenin şirket alacaklıları için güvence oluşturma fonksiyonu dikkate alınarak, özü itibariyle bir esas sözleşme değişikliği mahiyetinde olan sermaye azaltımı diğer esas sözleşme değişikliklerinden farklı birtakım düzenlemelere ve sıkı kurallara tabi tutulmuştur.Ülkemizde uzun yıllar süren enflasyonist etkiler ve ağır işleyen maliyetli bir süreç gerektirmesi nedeniyle yaygınlık kazanamayan yapının; enflasyon oranlarındaki düşme eğilimine ve sermaye azaltımı sonucunu doğurabilecek şirket bölünmelerinin TTK ile yasal alt yapıya kavuşturulmasına paralel olarak eskiye oranla daha sık kullanılması beklenmektedir. Bu itibarla sermaye azaltımı müessesesinin, uygulamada yaygınlık kazanması öncesinde vergisel sonuçlarıyla birlikte ele alınması, irdelenmesi, tereddüt ve belirsizliklerden arındırılmış daha etkin işleyen esnek bir yapıya kavuşturulması önem arz etmektedir.Vergi kanunlarımızda sermaye azaltımının vergilendirilmesi hususunda açık bir hüküm bulunmamasına rağmen, uygulamada sermaye azaltımı neticesinde ortaklara yapılan ödemelerin kâr payı olarak nitelendirilmesinin ve kâr paylarının tabi olduğu vergilendirme rejimi kapsamında vergilendirilmesinin anayasal bir ilke olan vergilerin kanuniliği ilkesine uygunluğu tartışmalıdır.Bu çalışmada, ticaret hukuku, sermaye piyasası hukuku ve vergi hukuku bileşenleri dikkate alınarak eski ve yeni ticaret kanunu, vergi kanunları ve vergilendirme ilkeleri, sermaye piyasası mevzuatı, konuya ilişkin yargı kararları, vergi uygulamaları bir arada değerlendirilerek sermaye azaltımı müessesesi ve bunun vergilendirilmesi incelenmiş, başta sermaye azaltımının vergilendirilmesine ilişkin açık bir kanun hükmünün bulunmamasından kaynaklananlar olmak üzere uygulamada karşılaşılan sorunlara değinilerek bunların çözümüne yönelik öneriler geliştirilmiştir. Capital is defined differently in economics, finance and law and it is a subject of interest to various natural and legal persons such as shareholders, creditors, possible future shareholders and other stakeholders of the firm. Firms being tax payers, firms? capital is also a subject of interest to the state. Capital can be reduced voluntarily due to various economic reasons, or as a mandatory process in case of a loss of capital.In the Turkish legislation, capital reduction is regulated in Articles 473, 474, and 475 of the Turkish Commercial Code (TCC). Taking into consideration the protective role of capital for the creditors, capital reduction, which is in essence, a change in the Articles of Incorporation, is regulated with stricter rules than other changes to the Articles of Incorporation.Capital reduction has not been widely used in Turkey, due to the long lasting high inflation periods, and the process being slow and costly. Currently, with substantially lowered inflation rates, and the newly introduced changes to the TCC, setting the rules for corporate spin offs, which might result in capital reductions, the process is expected to be used much more frequently than before. Consequently, before it becomes widely used, it is important to analyze the process of capital reduction together with its tax impacts, and to suggest any revisions to the existing process, for eliminating any uncertainties and making the process more effective.Although there is no explicit provision in our tax laws related to the taxation of capital reduction, in practice, when there is a payment to the shareholders due to capital reduction, for tax purposes this payment is treated as dividend and taxed accordingly. However, it is debatable that this practice is in line with the constitutional principle that taxes can only be levied through laws.This study analyses capital reduction and issues related to its taxation, taking into consideration their relevance to commercial law and capital market law. Thus, the analysis collectively evaluates the provisions in the old and the new Commercial Codes, Tax Codes, Capital Market Legislation, related court decisions and taxation practices, identifies and suggests solutions to the problems encountered in practice, which mainly arise due to the fact that there is no explicit provision in the tax laws for taxation of capital reduction.

<p>This dissertation consists of three essays which examine topics at the intersection of law and finance.</p> <p>The first essay investigates the role of regulatory sanctions and reputational damage in financial markets. We study the impact of the announcement of enforcement of financial and securities regulation by the UK’s financial regulators on the market price of penalized firms. We find that reputational sanctions are very real: their stock price impact is on average almost 9 times larger than the financial penalties imposed. Furthermore, reputational losses are confined to misconduct that directly affects parties who trade with the firm (such as customers and investors).</p> <p>In the second essay we analyze the costs and benefits associated with secured creditor control in bankruptcy. We do it by studying the highly contested practice of UK pre-packs, where a deal to sell the business is agreed before publicly entering into bankruptcy. Contrary to widespread criticism that this procedure leads to collusion, we find no evidence of exploitation of conflict of interests and we find that it preserves the value of the business and maximizes recovery in circumstances in which a public announcement of bankruptcy would destroy value. In small businesses where secured creditors are concentrated the benefits of their control seem to outweigh the costs.</p> <p>Finally, in the last essay we examine whether mandatory shareholder voting prevents wealth destruction in corporate acquisitions. We study the UK setting where all large transactions must have shareholder approval. We observe that such Class 1 transactions always get consent. Nevertheless, there is a striking difference between the performance of acquirers between Class 1 and other transactions. The finding is most pronounced for transactions in a narrow neighbourhood of the size threshold, and is robust to a large set of controls for confounding effects.</p>

Cette communication s’attache à comprendre les difficultés du dialogue social dans les organisations de l’économie sociale, sans chercher à en décrire les modalités pratiques et les différentes formes (consultation, négociation collective…). La présentation des rares études régionales réalisées par les syndicats d’employeurs de l’économie sociale permet de conclure à une faible présence des institutions représentatives du personnel dans le secteur, dominé par des petites associations. Surtout, ces études mettent en lumière la complexité d’un dialogue social dans des organisations dominées par la place du sociétaire ou du militant et non du salarié. La présente étude revient donc sur les origines historiques et politiques de ces structures qui ambitionnaient l’abolition du salariat et, partant, formule l’hypothèse d’une filiation et d’une cohérence, plutôt que d’une rupture et d’une contradiction. This contribution sets out to understand the difficulties of the social dialogue in social economy organizations without going detail about the different practices and forms (consultations, collective bargaining, etc.). From an examination of the rare regional studies undertaken by social economy employers’ organizations, it can be concluded that formal employee representation has a weak presence in the sector, which is dominated by small nonprofit organizations. These studies particularly reveal the complexity of the social dialogue in organizations where members or activists play a more important role than the employees. The article thus considers the historical and political origins of these organizations that aim to abolish waged labor and, consequently, argues this suggests continuity and coherence rather than a split and a contradiction.