Bibliographie sélective OHADA

O objetivo desta tese é apresentar, em perspectiva comparada entre Brasil e União Europeia, quais deveres devem ser impostos aos intermediários financeiros para que seus clientes não profissionais adquiram produtos e serviços adequados aos seus conhecimentos, experiências, necessidades, objetivos e situação financeira e, em caso de descumprimento desses deveres, as hipóteses e a extensão da responsabilidade civil dos intermediários financeiros. Nesse sentido, a crise financeira internacional de 2008 foi um divisor de águas por evidenciar problemas na distribuição de diversos instrumentos financeiros e resultar em diversos processos administrativos e judiciais, bem como reação de reguladores em diferentes jurisdições. Este trabalho está dividido em quatro Capítulos, cuja estrutura é a seguinte: I. Processo decisório e mercados financeiros: 1. As decisões individuais segundo a Teoria Neoclássica; 2. Risco, retorno e a Hipótese dos Mercados Eficientes (HME); 3. Falhas de mercado; 4. Racionalidade limitada: vieses cognitivos e emocionais do processo decisório; 5. Agentes quase racionais e Hipótese da Instabilidade Financeira (HIF); II. Intermediação e inovações financeiras: 1. A atividade de intermediação financeira; 2. Inovações financeiras de primeira geração e ciclo de endividamento privado; 3. Inovações financeiras recentes: moeda eletrônica, pagamentos instantâneos, criptoativos e stablecoins; III. Deveres de informação e adequação (suitability): 1. Princípios gerais e recomendações das organizações internacionais; 2. Deveres de informação e adequação na União Europeia; 2.1. Antes da crise financeira de 2008; 2.2. Reformas a partir da crise financeira de 2008; 3. Deveres de informação e adequação no Brasil; 3.1 Crédito rotativo; 3.2 Jurisprudência; 3.3 Decisões da CVM; IV. Responsabilidade civil. Considerações finais.

تعتبر البنوك التجارية من أهم المحطات المالية التي تقوم بعمليات قبول الودائع ودفعها عند الإستحقاق كما تساهم في عملية خلق النقود بكميات كبيرة هذا ما جعلها الأكثر عرضة لجريمة غسيل الأموال والغاية من هذا هو معرفة كيف تكافح هذه البنوك لجريمة خطيرة مثل هذه والتي سادت كل العالم هذا ما أدى إلى دراستنا لهذا الموضوع الذي إعتمدنا فيه على المنهج الوصفي التحليلي و بالتالي عند دراستنا له توصلنا إلى مجموعة من النتائج تتجلى في معرفة الظاهرة بأنها ظاهرة خطيرة سريعة الإنتشار ،عرضة البنوك بهذه الظاهرة كونها تقوم بعدة عمليات ،وجوب على الدولة أن تكافح هذه الجريمة وذلك بوضع قوانين تشريعية تعاقب كل من قام بإرتكاب هذه الظاهرة الخطيرة. Commercial banks are considered one of the most important financial stations that carry out the processes of accepting and paying deposits at maturity and also contribute to the process of creating money in large quantities. This led to our study of this subject, in which we relied on the descriptive and analytical approach, and therefore upon our study of it, we reached a set of results that are evident in the knowledge of the phenomenon that it is a dangerous and rapidly spreading phenomenon. The banks are exposed to this phenomenon as they carry out several operations. Legislative laws punishing anyone who committed this dangerous phenomenon.

The last few years have been marked by the increase in power of IFRS international accounting standards. From the full or partial adoption to the gradual convergence, many countries have displayed a strong preference for these standards. Meanwhile, the implementation of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS standard) in the context of developing countries is not trivial. We are witnessing an unprecedented clash between the authors who support the interest of these standards for developing countries, and those who conversely demonstrate that these norms are not well adapted to the context of those countries. Falling within this problematic, this thesis analyses the issues and determinants of the convergence of the Organisation pour l’Harmonisation en Afrique du Droit des Affaires (OHADA) accounting system towards IFRS international accounting standards in view of the reforms introduced by the last revision. From a sample of 10 companies, among which two local firms, two international firms, three publicly traded companies, and three not listed other companies, we show that the current convergence towards international accounting standards follows an effect of coercitive and mimetic isomorphism. In so doing, the timely implementation of these standards in the context of Cameroon is contingent with a number of structural and environmental factors that call their pertinence into question.

L’objet de cette étude est d’analyser l’impact des caractéristiques de l’organisation comptable sur la qualité de l’information comptable et financière produite par les PME. Une analyse de régression logistique binaire, une régression linéaire simple et un test de khi-deux sur les données recueillies par administration du questionnaire auprès d’un échantillon de73 PME constitué par choix raisonné permettent, d’une part, de constater que les PME camerounaises mettent en place une organisation comptable aux fins de produire non seulement des informations comptables obligatoires, mais également des informations comptables destinées à leur propre usage. D’autre part, les conclusions empiriques de cette étude renseignent que le recours à un prestataire dans le cadre d’une externalisation de la fonction comptable et le degré d’informatisation de l’activité comptable influencent positivement et significativement la qualité de la production comptable et financière des PME. A contrario, la féminisation de la fonction comptable se trouve être une des caractéristiques de l’organisation comptable sans influence sur la qualité du produit comptable et financier des PME. The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of the characteristics of the accounting organization on the quality of the accounting and financial information produced by SMEs. A binary logistic regression analysis, a simple linear regression and a chi-square test on the data collected by administering a questionnaire from a sample of 73 SMEs constituted by reasoned choice allow, on the one hand, to observe that the SMEs Cameroonians are setting up an accounting organization in order to produce not only mandatory accounting information, but also accounting information intended for their own use. On the other hand, the empirical conclusions of this study show that the use of a service provider in the context of an outsourcing of the accounting function and the degree of computerization of the accounting activity positively and significantly influence the quality of accounting production. and finance for SMEs. Conversely, the feminization of the accounting function is found to be one of the characteristics of the accounting organization without influencing the quality of the accounting and financial product of SMEs.

Il existe différents acteurs qui interviennent sur la place boursière CEMAC. Ces acteurs sont constitués de ceux qui ont un statut institutionnel et de ceux qui ont un statut des commerciaux. Parmi ces divers intervenants, une place de choix a été réservée aux intervenants commerciaux qui jouent des rôles importants dans le circuit de l’activité boursière. Les émetteurs, en tant que personnes morales de droit privé ou public, sont ceux qui offrent au public des Valeurs Mobilières ou autres produits de placement négociables ouvrant des droits à leur encontre. Lorsqu’ils procèdent à une opération par appel public à l’épargne, ils sont tenus de produire un document dénommé « Document d’Information ». Celui-ci doit contenir l’ensemble des éléments nécessaires sur le patrimoine, la situation financière, les résultats, les perspectives de l’émetteur et les droits attachés aux titres offerts. Il doit suffisamment préciser les caractéristiques des titres dont l’admission est demandée, le pourcentage en capital et en droit de vote qu’ils représentent et la répartition du capital avant et après l’opération. Tous ces éléments permettent aux investisseurs de fonder leurs jugements sur le patrimoine de l’émetteur, par voie de conséquence protégé son consentement. L’investisseur, quant à lui, est toute personne, physique ou morale, qui souscrit aux titres financiers émis par un émetteur. Il est lié à l’émetteur par un contrat d’investissement. Leurs droits à la protection se justifient en ce sens qu’ils confient la destinée d’une quote-part de leur patrimoine à la société émettrice. Or, il est naturel que celui qui donne mandat d’administrer un bien obtienne un compte-rendu de gestion aussi exact et fidèle que possible. On voit mal comment un investisseur mettra son fond dans une société sans être informé. Toutes ces personnes ont besoin d’un minimum d’information d’ordre juridique, économique ou financier pour défendre leurs intérêts catégoriels.

This thesis examines the impact of adoption of IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards) on two aspects of the operation of capital markets. Firstly, the impact of adoption of IFRS on financial reporting comparability, market liquidity, and cost of capital. Secondly, the impact of adoption of IFRS on seasoned equity offering (SEO) underperformance. To examine the impact of adoption of IFRS on financial reporting comparability, market liquidity, and cost of capital, the study used meta-analysis of empirical studies published since 2000. Meta-analysis provides an objective view of the empirical results, in contrast to narrative reviews, which offer subjective conclusions. From meta-analysis of 55 empirical studies with 1,259 effect sizes, the study finds that IFRS adoption has increased financial reporting comparability, market liquidity, and reduced cost of equity. For cost of debt, a decrease is observed only for voluntary adoption. The meta-regression analysis shows how the results differ across mandatory and voluntary adoption of IFRS and that the measurement choices, type of control variables, study design, and strength of empirical results explain the variation in the observed effect of adoption of IFRS. To examine the impact of adoption of IFRS on SEO underperformance the study analyses a large sample of SEOs from 51 countries over the period 1992-2017. Given that the empirical literature on SEOs has established that information asymmetry contributes to SEO underperformance, it is important to assess whether adoption of IFRS has reduced the uncertainties surrounding SEOs and, thus, subsequent underperformance. The study employs a control sample of non-IFRS adoption countries and applies a difference-in-difference (DiD) design to test for the incremental change for IFRS adoption countries over non-IFRS adoption countries. The study finds that SEO underperformance reduces for IFRS adopters relative to non-IFRS adopters in the post-adoption period. The reduction in SEO underperformance is influenced by increased disclosure, increased comparability, and number of accounting changes. The study also finds that the impact of adoption of IFRS on SEO underperformance exists only for firms in countries with strong enforcement, and is conditional on the implementation credibility of countries. The findings are robust to the application of a different measure of SEO underperformance. Overall, the study suggests that IFRS has had a positive impact on capital markets. However, increased disclosure, comparability, and credible implementation play important roles in realising the benefits of adoption of IFRS. Thus, policymakers of weak enforcement countries are encouraged to strengthen their institutional environment in order to reap the benefits that adoption of IFRS can provide to their capital market.

Most OECD countries’ value-added tax (VAT) systems apply reduced VAT rates to a selection of expenditure items in order to achieve distributional goals, and – to a lesser extent – social, cultural and employment-related goals. This thesis investigates the distributional effects of the VAT in OECD countries, and the merits of using reduced VAT rates to achieve distributional goals. The research adopts a microsimulation modelling approach that draws on household expenditure microdata from household budget surveys for an unprecedented 27 OECD countries. A consistent microsimulation methodology is adopted to ensure cross-country comparability of results. Non-behavioural VAT microsimulation models are first built to examine the overall distributional impact of the current VAT systems in each country. The research assesses the competing methodological approaches used in previous studies, highlighting the misleading effect of savings patterns on cross-sectional analysis when VAT burdens are measured relative to income. Measuring VAT burdens relative to expenditure – thereby removing the influence of savings – is found to provide a more reliable picture of the distributional impact of the VAT. On this basis, the VAT is found to be either roughly proportional or slightly progressive in most of the 27 OECD countries examined. Nevertheless, results for a small number of countries (Chile, Hungary, Latvia and New Zealand) highlight that broad-based VAT systems that have few reduced VAT rates or exemptions can produce a small degree of regressivity. Results also show that even a roughly proportional VAT can still have significant equity implications for the poor – potentially pushing some households into poverty. Behavioural VAT microsimulation models are then built for 23 OECD countries to investigate whether reduced VAT rates are an effective way to support poorer households, and whether the use of targeted cash transfers would be more effective. The behavioural microsimulation methodology follows the Linear Expenditure System based approach of Creedy and Sleeman (2006). Complementing this approach, a Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System (QUAIDS) is estimated specifically for New Zealand, thereby providing the first estimates of a QUAIDS model based on New Zealand data. Simulation results show that, as a whole, the reduced VAT rates present in most OECD countries tend to have a small progressive impact. However, despite this progressivity, reduced VAT rates are shown to be a highly ineffective mechanism for targeting support to poorer households: not only do rich households benefit from reduced rates, but they benefit more in aggregate terms than poor households do. When looking at reduced VAT rates applied to specific products, results are found to vary considerably. Reduced VAT rates specifically introduced to support the poor (such as reduced rates on food consumed at home and domestic utilities) are generally found to have a progressive impact, though rich households still receive a larger aggregate benefit than poor households. In contrast, reduced VAT rates introduced to address non-distributional goals (such as reduced rates on restaurants, hotels, and cultural and social expenditure) often have a regressive impact. Additional simulation results show that an income-tested cash transfer will better target support to poorer households than reduced VAT rates in all countries. Furthermore, even a universal cash transfer is found to better target poorer households than reduced VAT rates. However, results also show that it is very difficult for an income-tested cash transfer to fully compensate all poor households for the removal of reduced VAT rates. This is due to the significant variation in the underlying consumption patterns across households. While a small number of poor households lose out from replacing reduced VAT rates with targeted cash transfers, those that receive support are instead determined by income and family characteristics as opposed to consumption tastes – thereby increasing horizontal equity. Furthermore, many households are lifted out of poverty as revenue previously transferred to richer households is now transferred to poorer households. These results empirically confirm the theoretical expectation that, where available, direct mechanisms (whether via the income tax or benefit system) will better achieve distributional goals than reduced VAT rates. Countries that currently employ reduced VAT rates to achieve distributional goals should therefore consider removing these reduced rates and adjusting their income tax or benefit systems to achieve these distributional goals instead. Countries should also consider removing reduced VAT rates aimed at non-distributional goals where a more effective instrument is available to achieve the particular policy goal. At a minimum, the merits of these reduced VAT rates should be reassessed in light of their negative distributional impact.

Although integrated reporting emphasizes the contemporaneous relationship between financial and non-financial capitals, its primary purpose is to explain how an organization creates value over time. This is similar to the purpose of management commentary, which is part of a general-purpose financial report. We compare and contrast the information requirements of an integrated report with the type of information that supplements the primary financial information in general purpose financial reports, prepared in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). We examine whether the information in those reports is intended to be forward-looking and predictive, whether non-financial capitals can (and should) be monetized in order to facilitate integration, and whether the reporting boundary should be drawn in different ways to serve different purposes. We find that the International Integrated Reporting Framework and IFRS do not serve different purposes or apply different approaches, but that – in essence – they are competing frameworks. While IFRS has highly developed standards for reporting financial capital, neither has a well-developed approach for reporting any other capital.

This paper analyses financial inclusion in Africa focusing on the role of political business cycles and pricing behaviour of banks. We employ a sample of 330 banks operating in 29 African countries to test for two related hypotheses. Panel fixed and random effects were estimated for the period 2002 to 2013. The regression results that ensued suggests first that loan price increases in pre-election and election years. Building on this result and employing various specifications of financial inclusion, the second results suggest that, high bank loan prices in election years tend to increase financial access more, compared to non-election years, and that, high deposit price reduces financial usage but increases financial access in election years, compared to non-election years. By extension, these results have important policy implications for policymakers.

With the developments happening globally that are aimed at curbing base erosion and profit shifting by multinationals, improving the resolution of transfer pricing disputes has been identified as one of the key issues. This thesis investigates the challenges uniquely faced by African countries that militate against the use of the OECD transfer pricing dispute resolution mechanisms. The thesis starts by reflecting on the effect of transfer pricing manipulation by multinational enterprises in Africa in particular. Transfer pricing manipulation is one of the causes of the so-called tax gap, which is, the gap between anticipated and actual revenue collection. The aggression by revenue authorities against transfer pricing manipulation in order to close this gap has triggered a lot of transfer pricing adjustments. These adjustments have resulted in multiple transfer pricing disputes. In the analysis of the adopted OECD dispute resolution mechanisms, the thesis focuses on the effectiveness of the mutual agreement procedure (MAP), the advance pricing arrangement (APA) and the mandatory binding arbitration (MBA). It identifies the problems that result in the failure of or the delay in the resolution of many transfer pricing disputes by analysing the domestic frameworks that exist in four African countries namely: South Africa, Kenya, Uganda and Ghana. The thesis identifies problems such as the absence of a tax treaty network within the African continent, the use of underdeveloped double tax agreements and the lack of commitment from African countries to subscribe to and ratify multilateral conventions. These problems delay or stifle the resolution of tax treaty disputes. They also cause uncertainty for taxpayers and lead to continued tax avoidance by multinational enterprises that essentially avoid paying tax in African countries where the economic activities of these enterprises take place. The thesis also identifies the importance of other OECD supporting tools such as the exchange of tax information in the resolution of transfer pricing disputes. It focuses on tools such as country by country reports, the master file, the local file and simultaneous tax examination as covered by the Multilateral Convention on Mutual Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters. The thesis contributes to the resolution of the identified problems with transfer pricing dispute resolution in Africa by recommending certain improvements that can be effected. These recommendations entail, regarding the MAP, the expansion of tax treaty networks by African countries and the establishment of a Tax Treaty Dispute Resolution Committee by ATAF. Regarding the APA, it is recommended that African countries should sign the multilateral instrument (MLI) and make use of advance tax rulings (ATRs) as alternatives. With respect to the MBA, this thesis recommends that African countries should use optional arbitration by effectively using article 25(4) of the OECD Model tax convention (MTC). It also recommends that African countries must enhance their tax transparency by ratifying multilateral conventions that seek to address international tax co-operation and to improve compliance with transfer pricing documentation requirements in order to make the resolution of transfer pricing disputes more effective.

The adoption of International financial reporting standards (IFRS) has been presented in several empirical literature as a factor that could improve the quality of financial reports. However, Ghana has not attained the desired levels of financial reporting quality after the adoption of IFRS. Literature reveals that lack of proper enforcement of these high-quality standards may result in limited compliance and will undermine the effectiveness of these standards in terms of attaining high-quality financial reports. This study therefore argues that the relationship between IFRS compliance and reporting quality revolves around some enforcement mechanisms like corporate governance structures. In view of that, by using random effect estimation technique, this study examined the role of corporate governance in the relationship between IFRS compliance and the reporting quality of firms listed on the Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE). The study found that the right corporate governance mechanisms will enhance the positive effect of IFRS compliance on reporting quality. This study further recommends that to gain an appreciable level of public confidence in the annual reports of firms listed on the GSE, the audit committee’s independence and the board’s independence should be strengthened to ensure that management does not only adopt IFRS, but that the standards are actually complied with.

Adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) is supposed to help enhance comparability of financial statement, improve the quality of financial reporting and accounting information of businesses in a country. This is expected to help improve Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the adopting countries. This study examined the effect of IFRS adoption on FDI inflows in Africa. Unlike previous studies that sample both adopting and non-adopting countries, this study sampled only Africa countries that have adopted IFRS to determine whether the adoption has improved FDI inflows. To achieve this objective, 20 African countries that have adopted IFRS were sampled covering a period 1980 to 2015. Data was sourced from The World Bank financial and Economic Data. Control variables such as GDP growth, openness of the economy, government debt and population growth were included in the model. The correlation and regression analysis showed that IFRS adoption has a positive and significant influence on FDI inflows in Africa. On the other hand, open economy, government debt and population growth had a positive and significant association with FDI. Overall, the results show that African countries that want to improve FDI inflows must improve the quality of their reporting environment by adopting IFRS.

Mobile money services have considerable potential in modern economies. They have the potential to increase financial inclusion for poor people and people excluded from formal financial services. This is because mobile money services can be accessed simply using a mobile cellular phone and the majority of people nowadays own mobile phones, including people living in the rural areas. Mobile money can therefore solve the problem of financial exclusion because even the people who live in the rural areas without access to formal financial services can now access financial services thorough mobile money services. Financial inclusion, on the other hand, is simply defined as a situation where every member of the society has access to and is able to use financial services offered by formal financial services institutions, such as banks and insurance companies. Financial inclusion has many benefits, the main benefit being the stimulation of the economy of a country. For mobile money services to operate smoothly and financial inclusion to be achieved, there must be enabling regulation. Regulation must not be so strict as to prevent mobile money service providers from operating. Regulation must allow for innovation and at the same time maintain financial integrity and stability by ensuring that financial crimes, such as money laundering, do not affect mobile money services. Although mobile money services can increase financial inclusion, regulators must be vigilant to ensure that they stop criminals from using mobile money services to commit money laundering offences. This research focuses mainly on mobile money services in the Kingdom of Lesotho. The aim is to find out how regulation can be improved to ensure that mobile money services can help to increase financial inclusion. The aim is also to find out how regulation can help to ensure that mobile money services operate smoothly, and that the crime of money laundering is prevented from affecting mobile money services. To achieve this aim, the research is divided into different chapters and in each chapter the aim is to find ways in which the main aim can be achieved. In the research, mobile money and financial inclusion will be defined and their importance in modern economies will be demonstrated in greater detail. Furthermore, the issues of money laundering will be discussed. The threat of the crime of money laundering will be highlighted. An analysis of the legal regulatory framework of mobile money services and money laundering in Lesotho will be undertaken to determine the extent to which these regulatory frameworks can help realise financial inclusion and promote mobile money services in Lesotho. The same discussion is made in respect of other African countries. The legal regulatory framework of Lesotho will be compared to the framework of other African countries to ascertain how mobile money services and money laundering and financial inclusion issues are regulated in those countries. The countries discussed in this research are South Africa, Malawi, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda, Tanzania, and Ghana. Based on these discussions, some shortcomings in the legal regulatory framework of mobile money services and money laundering in Lesotho will be identified and the conclusion will be drawn that the two frameworks have to be revisited to ensure that mobile money services will operate smoothly in the Kingdom of Lesotho. Furthermore, recommendations will be made to address the legal shortcomings identified in the framework.

L’attractivité territoriale des Etats se trouve au centre des préoccupations tant au niveau national qu’international. Les mesures fiscales dérogatoires destinées à attirer des investissements étrangers s’avèrent nombreuses et complexes, en raison non seulement de l’influence internationale, mais également des hésitations et de l’accumulation des règles nationales. Au Gabon et en France, les incitations fiscales d’attraction territoriale ont été instruites dans des domaines d’activités clés de l’économie. Elles participent ainsi à l’industrialisation de ces pays. Cependant, au-delà de l’industrialisation, ces mesures dérogatoires visent à développer certaines zones du territoire, et surtout à lutter contre le chômage. Néanmoins, loin de toujours parvenir aux résultats escomptés, ces mesures finissent parfois, au fil des années et des modifications successives à se complexifier, les rendant illisibles. The territorial attractiveness of states is at the center of national and international. Derogatory tax measures designed to attract foreign investments are numerous and complex, not only because international influence, but also hesitations and the accumulation of national rules. In Gabon and France, territorial attraction tax incentives have been educated in key activity areas of the economy. They thus participate industrialization of these countries.However, beyond industrialization, these derogations aim to develop certain areas of the territory, and especially to combat unemployment. Nevertheless, far from always achieving the expected results, these measures end up sometimes, over the years and successive modifications to become more complex, making them unreadable.

Cette étude a pour objectif de connaitre les différentes étapes de l’introduction à la Bourse régionale des valeurs mobilières (BRVM) en tant que place financière régionale de l’UEMOA, régulé par le conseil régional de l’Epargne Publique et des marchés financiers. Pour atteindre cet objectif, nous avons émaillés l’organisation du marché financier dans une approche visant à définir les différents intervenants et leur rôle. Ensuite, nous avons analysés l’activité boursière du marché. Les indicateurs de performance principalement relevés sont le rendement, la liquidité, le volume de transactions et le risque du marché. Le potentiel de la BRVM est encore à exploiter au regard de l’activité économique de la sous-région. Toutefois, le dynamisme du marché boursier est intéressant surtout du fait qu’il offre un rendement intéressant auprès des intéressés. Nous avons soumis les différents indicateurs du marché à une analyse comparative de son évolution à l’échelle des Bourses africaines, afin d’évaluer son degré d’attractivité. Nous recommandons des ajustements sur les différents points relevés visant l’essor de la place financière de la BRVM tout en démontrons les résultats de notre recherche.

Ce travail se propose d'étudier les aspects juridiques du crédit dit réel dans une confrontation implicite au crédit bancaire qui semble aujourd'hui l'emporter dans le domaine des échanges, en utilisant un système de garantie tiré des suretés réelles. La comparaison engagée est destinée à montrer quel rôle occupe en particulier la réserve de propriété et la fiducie dans le domaine classique de la vente civile et commerciale à destination des particuliers. Au-delà d'une approche technique, il s'agit de restituer un sens aux définitions des droits personnels et réels dans le langage des sources du droit. Il s'agit aussi de s'attacher aux valeurs de justice en terme éthique qui fondent le support de ces droits : dignité des personnes et droit des biens qui tiennent au mécanisme synallagmatique engagé (équivalence des prestations). Mais, il sera aussi tenu compte du rôle parfois déstabilisateur d'éléments économiques extérieurs dans la mesure où ils déséquilibrent les mécanismes juridiques classiques en mettant en concurrence crédit bancaire et crédit réel, alors même qu’il semble que le dernier soit d’avantage justifié. This work proposes to study the legal aspects of trade credit in the case of an implicit impasse with bank credit that seems to prevail today in the field of trade, by using a guarantee system derived from real collateral. The comparison undertaken is intended to show the role played in particular by the retention of title and the trust in the classic field of retail sale to individuals. Beyond a technical approach, it’s about restoring a meaning to definitions of personal and real rights in the language of the law or regulations. It is also a question of attaching to the values of justice in ethical terms which are at the foundation of these rights: the dignity of people and the right to possess goods which are linked to the equality of benefits. But it will also be taken into consideration the sometimes-destabilizing exterior economic elements, in the measure that they destabilize the classic legal mechanisms by putting bank credit and trade credit in competition, even though it seems that the latter is more justified.

La fixation du prix de pleine concurrence par les administrations fiscales des pays en développement soulève des questions singulières. L’objectif fondamental recherché à travers la fixation des prix de transfert est l’affectation de la juste assiette de l’impôt à chaque État concerné par les transactions intragroupes, c’est-à-dire au sein des groupes multinationaux de sociétés. L’OCDE et ses pays membres estiment que le meilleur moyen pour parvenir à cet objectif est de vérifier que le prix de transfert en cause respecte le principe de pleine concurrence, lequel repose sur une comparaison entre les prix pratiqués par les sociétés appartenant à un même groupe et ceux pratiqués pour des opérations similaires, par des entreprises indépendantes. Toutefois, cet objectif n’est pas toujours atteint dans la pratique. Favorisé par l'OCDE, le principe de pleine concurrence suppose la mise en œuvre d’une analyse des faits et circonstances des transactions de chaque contribuable. L’OCDE recommande cinq méthodes pour cette analyse, jugée très subjective, donnant aux multinationales une grande liberté pour se structurer afin de minimiser les coûts fiscaux qu'elles encourent. A l’issu du projet BEPS de l'OCDE/G20, le principe de pleine concurrence continue d’être le standard international pour l'évaluation des prix de transfert. Toutefois, ce principe n’est pas suffisamment pragmatique pour les administrations fiscales que l’on peut considérer comme faibles, car il comporte de nombreuses échappatoires qui peuvent compromettre la détermination de l'assiette fiscale. Pour une imposition effective des groupes multinationaux de sociétés, notre thèse suggère deux arguments principaux. D’abord, elle propose des mesures à court terme qui reposent sur la simplification des règles actuelles afin de permettre aux administrations fiscales de collecter des recettes fiscales avec les moyens dont elles disposent. Néanmoins, ces mesures sont provisoires et transitoires étant donné qu’elles reposent sur des méthodes unilatérales jugées défaillantes. Ensuite, notre thèse soutient l’idée que la taxation unitaire avec la répartition formulaire est, à long terme, la meilleure solution, car elle est plus équitable pour toutes les parties. Our thesis addresses taxation of transfer pricing and the arm’s length principle (ALP) in developing countries. Transfer pricing rules aim to accurately reflect the economic contribution of a multinational company (MNC) in each of the various jurisdictions in which it operates. The objective of the TP rules is to ensure that the various entities of an MNC report the real corresponding taxable profits in their jurisdiction.However, this objective is not always attained in practice. Favored by the OECD, the ALP approach requires an individual analysis of the facts and the situation of each taxpayer. There are five approved methods for this analysis, therefore it is eventually highly subjective, giving MNCs much freedom to structure themselves to minimize the tax costs they incur. Following the OECD/G20 BEPS Project, ALP has continued to be the international standard for assessing TP. However, the ALP is not a practical approach for developing countries, as it has many loopholes that can jeopardize the tax base. This thesis has two main arguments. First, it proposes some short-term strategies to make the ALP framework workable for developing countries’ tax administrations, although they are only a stopgate solution since they are still based on a flawed approach. Second, this chapter supports the judgment that unitary taxation with Formulary Apportionment (FA) is the best long-term solution that is fair to all parties.

L'essor de la RSE, tant au sein des sociétés qu'au travers des concertations internationales, illustre l'importance qu'ont pris l'éthique et la morale dans les relations d'affaires. Le banquier y tient une place centrale puisqu'il est « le moteur de toutes les activités de son temps ». Du fait de son rôle prépondérant, aussi bien pour l'économie réelle que sur les marchés financiers, il devrait agir en précurseur du développement de la RSE. Pourtant, lors de la crise de 2007, l'incitation déraisonnée au surendettement des particuliers et le recours à la titrisation pour faciliter la diffusion d'actifs toxiques ont démontré une amoralité générale des banques dans la conduite de leurs affaires. De cette crise de grande ampleur ressortent des questionnements sur l’impact de l’aléa moral sur la stabilité des États et la volonté d’apporter des réponses juridiques au risque bancaire systémique, afin de responsabiliser les banquiers et d’éviter que l’Histoire ne se répète.