Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Comme dans presque tous les pays d'Afrique subsaharienne, la majorité de la population sénégalaise est rurale. Elle vit de l'agriculture ou d'activités qui en dépendent. Paradoxalement les investissements publics dans le secteur agricole restent très faibles, alors que l'insécurité alimentaire progresse. Pour faire face aux problèmes alimentaires, les pouvoirs publics multiplient les annonces de politiques agricoles, qui ne sont presque jamais suivies d'effets, parce que ne reposant pas sur des études précises et rigoureuses. Dans ce contexte, nous avons cherché à comprendre les stratégies développées par la petite paysannerie, les dynamiques qui animent les exploitations agricoles familiales pour faire reculer l'insécurité alimentaire en milieu rural, et dans quelle mesure celles-ci peuvent contribuer à la souveraineté alimentaire du Sénégal. Cette question appelle celle de l'accès à une nourriture suffisante et celle de sa production. Ainsi, à travers notre étude que nous avons intitulée « Dynamiques paysannes, souveraineté alimentaire et marché mondial des produits agricoles : l'exemple du Sénégal », nous cherchons à répondre à une série de questions : 1. Comment les paysans sénégalais produisent-ils les biens nécessaires à l'alimentation et l'entretien de leur famille ? 2. Comment les paysans sénégalais sont-ils organisés autour des questions de la vie rurale ? 3. Quelle est l'influence du marché mondial de produits agricoles et de ses règles établies par l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), sur la disponibilité et l'accès aux produits alimentaires ? De quelle façon les biens alimentaires importés concurrencent-ils la culture de biens agricoles qu'il est possible de produire localement ? Nous avons ainsi consacré une première partie de notre étude au procès de production et à son évolution. En dehors des conditions climatiques, le contrôle effectif par les paysans, des moyens de production et de la tenure foncière, détermine en grande partie, les volumes de biens agricoles et alimentaires produits, ainsi que leur accès. Dans une seconde partie, nous avons analysé l'émergence et l'évolution des modes d'organisation paysanne et examiné leur influence sur la satisfaction des besoins alimentaires et les orientations des politiques publiques en matière agricole. Enfin, dans une troisième partie, nous avons essayé de mesurer l'impact des règles du commerce international sur les productions locales de biens agricoles et alimentaires. Ce travail nous a permis de tirer un certain nombre de conclusions. La majorité des paysans du Sénégal ne parvient plus à produire le volume d'aliments de base nécessaires pour nourrir et entretenir leur famille. Les moyens de production ont relativement peu évolué au cours des dernières décennies, même si la culture attelée et l'introduction de nouveaux matériels ont considérablement amélioré les conditions de production et diminué la pénibilité du travail. L'outil de production s'est dégradé et ce qu'il en reste ne survit que grâce à l'habileté des forgerons ruraux. La recherche agronomique a permis d'obtenir des variétés homologuées de semences adaptées aux conditions pédologiques et climatiques. Mais elle demeure inefficace en ce sens que les moyens pour appliquer concrètement ses résultats sont absents et les paysans n'ont aucune maîtrise sur elle. Sur le plan du commerce international des produits agricoles, la faiblesse du Tarif extérieur commun (TEC) de la CEDEAO a eu pour conséquence l'augmentation des volumes d'importations de biens qui peuvent être produits localement. Les règles de l'OMC basées sur une conception ultralibérale du marché portent davantage préjudice aux produits agricoles et alimentaires de l'Afrique de l'Ouest. Sur un plan plus global, et à défaut de sortir l'agriculture des accords de l'OMC, il est possible de réclamer avec la CEDEAO, la mise en place d'un autre Accord sur l'agriculture qui redéfinirait le dumping de manière à protéger les pays les plus vulnérables.

Modern dönemde ticarî hayatta ortaya çıkan mübadele yöntemlerini İslâm ticaret hukuku açısından değerlendirebilmek ve İslâm'ın ticarî alandaki temel ilkelerine aykırı işlemlere alternatif yöntemler üretebilmek için öncelikle vahiy dönemindeki ticaret hukukunu tespit etmek gerekmektedir. Vahiy dönemindeki ticaret hukukunun sağlıklı bir şekilde anlaşılabilmesi ise dönemin ticarî kurallarının sosyolojik açıdan incelenmesini zorunlu kılmaktadır. Bu amaçla yapılan bu araştırmada ulaşılan sonuçları kısaca şu şekilde ifade etmek mümkündür:Cahiliye döneminde Hicaz bölgesinde sosyal hayat, bölgenin coğrafî yapısı ile dönemin siyasî ve dinî şartları etkisi altında sürdürülmüştür. Yeni bir yaşam biçiminin hedeflendiği vahiy döneminde toplumsal hayatın bütün ünitelerinde değişikliğe gidilmiş, Hicazlılar'ın iktisadî tecrübe ve ihtiyaçları göz önünde bulundurularak yeni bir ticaret hukuku oluşturulmuştur. Mekke devrinde, Hz. Peygamber kanun koyup uygulayacak siyasî güce sahip olmadığı için, hayatın diğer alanlarında olduğu gibi ticaret hukuku alanında da temel ahlâkî değerler müslüman tebaaya benimsetilmeye çalışılmakla yetinilmiştir. Hicretten sonra Medine'de siyasî ve askerî bakımdan yeterli güce kavuşulunca ekonomik sisteme müdahale edilmeye başlanmıştır. Bir önceki dönemden devralınan ticarî kurum ve işlemler adalet eksenli yeni hukukî ve ahlâkî kurallara göre değerlendirilmeye tabi tutulmuştur. Ticaret hayatında yapılan değişiklikler içtimaî kurallara uygun bir şekilde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Yeni hukukî düzenlemelerin kargaşaya meydan vermemesi için gerekli görülen konularda tedricî yöntem uygulanmış ve alternatif uygulamalar devreye sokulmuştur. Öte yandan toplumsal yapıyı oluşturan diğer kurumlarda gerçekleştirilen değişiklikler de yeni ticaret hukukunun kolaylıkla topluma mal edilmesinde oldukça etkili olmuştur. Occurring in the commercial life of modern methods of exchange, to assess in terms of commercial law of Islam, and contrary to the fundamental principles of commercial transactions in the field of Islam in order to produce alternative methods, primarily trade law to determine the required period of revelation. Revelation during the period of commercial law in a healthy way to understand the rules of trade requires a review of the sociological perspective. For this purpose, the results achieved in this study, it is possible to briefly stated as follows:The period of ignorance of social life in the Hijaz, the region's geographical structure and the period continued under the influence of political and religious conditions. Revelation in a new way of life, social life aimed to change all the units were made, considering the economic needs of the people of Hijaz experience and created a new trade law. Mecca during the reign of the Prophet put the law does not have the power to implement the political, as in other areas of life in the field of commercial law to teach basic moral values were muslims. After the migration, the strength is reached Medina, the political and military respects, the economic system started to intervene. Commercial institutions and processes inherited from the previous period, according to the rules of justice-oriented evaluation has been subject to new legal and moral. Changes to trade in his life was carried out in accordance with social rules. New legal challenge to prevent confusion in the arrangements, gradual method is applied to matters deemed necessary and alternative practices were introduced. On the other hand, changes in social structure in the new trade law is easily performed by other institutions in society to be the goods have been quite effective.

This thesis explores the interactions between French and foreign influenced formal commercial law in the Republic of Benin and women's on-the-ground business practices. It uses a comparative, historical and inter-disciplinary and empirical methodology (Clinical legal pluralism). It contributes to the debate on the relationship between law and socio-economic development in African States where formal law is modeled on that of their former colonizing power. The dissertation looks at the evolution of business law and of economic activity in the region from pre-colonial times to present where OHADA Uniform Acts ("Acts") largely inspired by French and foreign law constitute Beninese formal commercial law's primary source. The thesis then examines elements of businesswomen's socio-cultural realities and economic practices in the region to assess the extent to which they are accounted for in formal law. The analysis reveals the considerable gap that continues to exist between the Western-inspired Acts and the realities and modes of Beninese women entrepreneurs. While the OHADA regime may benefit French and other foreign companies that contribute to the region's economic vitality to varying extents, the difficult appropriation and access by a majority of citizens and enterprises in Benin to OHADA laws prevent Beninese (in particular female) small and medium enterprises from playing a greater role in the socio-economic development of their countries. The dissertation suggests that the paradigms and methods currently used by OHADA and international organizations such as the World Bank in their law reform activities do not take appropriate account of economic, social and cultural realities of the regions where the new law is to be implemented. These include gender issues in business practices. It argues that commercial law reformers should recognise the central role of citizens in creating the law. Finally, it outlines an analytical framework for applying these objectives so as to empower citizens in Benin as lawmakers. This framework will integrate some of existing law reform paradigms with additional ones focused on the identity of legal actors in the region (banks, small, medium and large entrepreneurs, micro-credit institutions, financiers, etc.), the dynamics between them, the role of women in business and alternative legal reform methods based on bottom-up approaches to law. Ce mémoire s'intéresse aux interactions entre le droit commercial d'inspiration française ou étrangère dans la République du Bénin avec les réalités pratiques que les femmes commerçantes y vivent sur le terrain. Une méthodologie comparative, historique et interdisciplinaire y est employée (pluralisme juridique clinique). Il se veut une contribution au débat sur la relation entre le droit et le développement socio-économique dans les États Africains où le droit formel prend modèle sur celui de leur ancienne métropole.L'auteure débute en examinant l'évolution du droit des affaires et de l'activité économique dans la région à partir de l'époque précoloniale jusqu'à aujourd'hui, où les Actes Uniformes OHADA (les « Actes »), fondés largement sur le droit Français et étranger, constituent la source la plus importante du droit commercial Béninois.Elle poursuit en explorant les réalités socioculturelles et les pratiques économiques des femmes commerçantes dans la région afin de vérifier dans quelle mesure elles sont prises en compte par le droit formel. Cette analyse révèle un écart considérable qui perdure entre les Actes d'inspiration occidentale et les réalités et pratiques des femmes commerçantes Béninoises.Bien que le régime OHADA puisse bénéficier aux investisseurs Français et étrangers qui contribuent, à divers degrés, à l'activité économique dans la région, la difficulté pour une majorité de citoyens et d'entreprises Béninois à s'approprier ou accéder aux Actes empêchent les petites et moyennes entreprises Béninoises (particulièrement celles dirigées par des femmes) de jouer un plus grand rôle dans le développement socioéconomique de leur pays.L'auteure postule que les paradigmes et méthodes employés par l'OHADA ainsi que par des organisations internationales telles la Banque Mondiale dans le cadre de leurs activités de réforme législative ne tiennent pas suffisamment compte des réalités économiques, sociales et culturelles des régions où leurs réformes sont mises en œuvre. Ces réalités comprennent les questions liées au genre dans le cadre des pratiques commerciales. L'auteure suggère que les réformateurs du droit commercial reconnaissent davantage le rôle central que les citoyens jouent dans la création du droit.Enfin, le mémoire trace les contours d'un cadre analytique qui applique ces objectifs de façon à réhabiliter les citoyens Béninois à titre de créateurs de droit. Ce cadre intègre quelques-uns des paradigmes existants sur la réforme du droit avec de nouveaux paradigmes centrés sur l'identité des acteurs juridiques dans la région (les banques, les petites, moyennes et grandes entreprises, les institutions de microcrédit, les investisseurs, etc.), les dynamiques entre eux, le rôle des femmes dans le milieu des affaires et les méthodes alternatives de réforme législative fondées sur une approche juridique du bas vers le haut.

This thesis addresses issues of anti-dumping law and practice from a critical and juridical analysis position. In particular, the thesis seeks to determine whether the South African anti-dumping regime is compliant with the anti-dumping regime of the World Trade Organization (hereafter WTO), and to consider possible solutions for addressing instances where the South African law is not WTO compatible. The thesis departs from the hypothesis that the WTO merely requires functional equivalence of the implementation of national legislation on anti-dumping, and not the verbatim adoption of WTO jurisprudence and relevant provisions of the Agreement on the Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of 1994 (hereafter URAA), into the legislation of State Parties. Some of the provisions of the URAA are not completely clear, and are cast in convoluted and complicated technical jargon, leaving loopholes that may be justifiably exploited by State Parties. The study in this thesis was achieved through the critical analysis of legislation and relevant legal documents, case law and contemporary literature. The primary research paradigm used in this study is interpretive and analytical, which is the same as qualitative research methodology. The legal comparative research method, with a historical component, also played an important role in this study. The literature study undertaken and the critical analyses made of the South African anti-dumping regime show mixed findings. The South African antidumping regime was found to have both positive aspects and problematic aspects when compared with WTO regulations. Some of the critical areas of the South African anti-dumping regime are WTO compatible whilst others are not. In some areas the South African anti-dumping regime has adopted functionally equivalent provisions to the provisions of the WTO law. However, the practice of the International Trade Administration Commission (ITAC) is sometimes fraught with inconsistencies. The compatibility of the South African anti-dumping system with the WTO regime came close to being examined by the WTO on 1 April 1999 in the dispute of South Africa - Anti-dumping Duties on the Import of Certain Pharmaceutical Products from India based on allegations that the method for calculating normal value used by the ITAC was found to be inconsistent with the URAA. Similarly, the conformity of the procedures and findings of the International Trade and Administration Act (ITAA) in anti-dumping cases came under attack in the cases of Algorax v The International Trade Administration Commission and others, and Scaw v The International Trade Administration Commission and others, respectively. Finally, the thesis ends with recommendations in response to the challenges identified and key submissions made throughout the analysis. Key recommendations include the broadening of the concept of interested parties to include registered trade unions and trade union federations; introducing an explicit and mandatory "public Interests" provision to ensure that South Africa's anti-dumping administration is free from political trappings in the form of the involvement of the Minister of Trade and Industry; introducing the new section 31 bis of the ADR in order to allow the initiation of anti-dumping petitions by a registered trade union or trade union federation; providing procedural guidelines for self-initiation of anti-dumping petitions by the ITAC; increasing transparency in anti-dumping proceedings and enquires; setting realistic time-lines for all anti-dumping processes and ensuring compliance with the same; improving the institutional and functional capacity of the ITAC; amending section 18.3 of the ADR to allow search and seizure operations pursuant to the provisions of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 and the Customs Act; having a clear provision on verification visits confidentiality and a clear provision on producer knowledge; introducing a clear provision in the ADR dealing explicitly with zeroing pursuant to Article 2.4.3 (ii) of URAA; and the introduction of duty refund procedures. It is hoped that the recommendations made in this thesis, which are in the form of suggested legislative interventions required to upgrade certain areas of South African anti-dumping law and practice to be fully WTO compliant, will influence the introduction of suitably crafted anti-dumping legislation in South Africa. It is further hoped that the thesis will become an invaluable source of information for practitioners and students, and a critical source on the best practice for the imposition and implementation of anti-dumping measures. Moreover, the thesis will add to the body of academic writing on South African anti-dumping law.

Le présent Acte uniforme portant sur le droit commercial général (AUDCG) définit et réglemente : 1) le statut du commerçant, personne accomplissant les actes de commerce par nature comme profession ; 2) le statut de l’entreprenant, entrepreneur individuel, qui, sur simple déclaration, exerce une activité civile professionnelle, artisanale ou agricole. Ce dernier est soumis à un régime juridique simplifié et adapté, pour favoriser le passage des acteurs de l’économie informelle vers l’économie formelle ; 3) le registre du commerce et du crédit mobilier (RCCM) qui reçoit notamment les immatriculations des personnes physiques et morales commerçantes, les déclarations d’activité des entreprenants et l’inscription des sûretés. Le RCCM est tenu par le greffe de la juridiction compétente en matière commerciale ou l’organe compétent désigné par l’Etat Partie ; il est intégré, au niveau de chaque Etat membre, dans un fichier national, qui lui-même alimente un fichier régional tenu par la Cour Commune de Justice et d’arbitrage de l’Organisation pour l’Harmonisation en Afrique du Droit des Affaires (CCJA). L’informatisation du RCCM vise à favoriser l’accès, en temps réel, à une information fiable et actualisée sur l’ensemble des acteurs économiques de l’espace l'Organisation pour l'Harmonisation en Afrique du Droit des Affaires (OHADA) et l’état des sûretés consenties ; 4) le bail à usage professionnel, statut qui étend à tous les professionnels exerçant leur activité dans un local pris à bail, la protection autrefois réservée aux commerçants locataires ; 5) le fonds de commerce, constitué de l’ensemble de moyens qui permettent au commerçant d’attirer et de conserver une clientèle ; 6) l’intermédiaire de commerce (commissionnaire, courtier ou agent de commerce), personne physique ou morale agissant professionnellement pour le compte d’une autre personne afin de conclure avec un tiers un acte juridique à caractère commercial ; et 6) la vente commerciale, contrat de vente de marchandises entre commerçants, y compris les contrats de fournitures de marchandises destinées à des activités de fabrication ou de production. Tout commerçant, personne physique ou morale y compris toutes sociétés commerciales dans lesquelles un État ou toute autre personne de droit public est associé, ainsi que tout groupement d’intérêt économique, dont l’établissement ou le siège social est situé sur le territoire de l’un des Etats Parties au Traité relatif à l’harmonisation du Droit des Affaires en Afrique est soumis aux dispositions du présent Acte uniforme.

A auditoria externa de demonstrações contábeis é um dos instrumentos mais importantes para o desenvolvimento do mercado, pelo fato de adicionar credibilidade e segurança às informações financeiras prestadas pelos agentes econômicos que buscam captar recursos junto ao público investidor. A doutrina jurídica pátria, entretanto, ao contrário do que ocorre em outros países, tem relegado o estudo do assunto a um papel secundário, quase não abordado nas obras nacionais, deixando sua pormenorização integralmente sob o domínio da ciência contábil. Esta postura causa um afastamento do jurista da realidade das circunstâncias em que a auditoria se desenvolve, fazendo com que, pela falta de compreensão das peculiaridades da matéria, haja a aplicação inadequada de muitos institutos a uma realidade específica e, muitas vezes, diversa daquela para as quais referidos institutos foram concebidos. Como a matéria abrange tanto o Direito quanto a Contabilidade, tencionamos fazer aqui uma abordagem conjunta, a fim de possibilitar a comunicação das duas ciências e compartilhar os problemas que o tema apresenta. Passamos em revista a natureza dos principais institutos de auditoria; seu relacionamento e importância na economia; as características jurídicas do contrato, suas obrigações, as partes contratantes e os terceiros interessados; o desenvolvimento contábil de sua execução; e seu relacionamento com os sistemas de governança corporativa. Além disso, verificamos as atuais tendências quanto ao sistema de riscos e responsabilidade civil do auditor, matéria amplamente discutida no âmbito internacional.

A tese a ser defendida é a de que a autorregulação institucionalmente estruturada e legitimada pela regulação é um eficiente arranjo para tratar as falhas e riscos inerentes ao mercado de bolsa. O trabalho se inicia com a descrição da atual estrutura da autorregulação do mercado de bolsa, destacando seu novo formato institucional decorrente do processo de desmutualização e abertura de capital das entidades administradoras do mercado de bolsa e concluindo pela necessidade de adoção de novas perspectivas sobre o tema que transcendam o aparente antagonismo entre concepções liberais e intervencionistas. A partir dessa premissa, o trabalho apresenta uma visão panorâmica da evolução histórica da autorregulação do mercado de bolsa e considerações sobre os conceitos de autorregulação em outras áreas do conhecimento, a fim de identificar suas variações e seus elementos mais marcantes que constituirão a base a partir da qual serão apresentadas as novas perspectivas de análise do tema. As perspectivas propostas enfocam a natureza jurídica da autorregulação do mercado de bolsa como atividade paraestatal destinada a concretizar o modelo teórico neoclássico de justa formação dos preços segundo a livre atuação das forças de oferta e demanda e, também, melhorar os padrões de conduta praticados no mercado. Para tanto, o trabalho propõe que as decisões tomadas no âmbito da autorregulação se pautem por critérios materiais baseados nas premissas teóricas da concorrência perfeita e na exigência de cumprimento dos deveres derivados da boa-fé objetiva (informação, lealdade e proteção). Por fim, é apresentada uma especulação teórica, preliminar e não definitiva, denominada teoria palco-platéia, que visa situar o desenvolvimento da estrutura de autorregulação do mercado de bolsa como parte de uma questão essencial de interação entre indivíduo e sociedade representada nas diversas situações comunicativas envolvidas nos processos decisórios individuais e coletivos que modelam os padrões de conduta e as instituições públicas e privadas.

This dissertation contains an evaluation of the interaction between law and sport in South Africa. The evaluation includes description of the main areas where laws (in the form of the common law, legislation and the relevant provisions of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996) apply to sport, in the contexts of both amateur sport and the fast-developing professional sports industry. Apart from such descriptive content, the dissertation will also critically evaluate the appropriateness of the relevant laws and their application in the often atypical context of sport, as well as the courts' treatment of the relevant legal issues. In the process of providing such critical evaluation, and where relevant, the author includes a comparative analysis of the treatment of relevant legal issues in other jurisdictions (most notably the United Kingdom and European Union, which are especially relevant in light of the application of the 'European model' of sports governance and regulation, which applies to the major sporting codes in South Africa). In particular, the author critically evaluates the following aspects of the South African jurisdiction's treatment of the application of law to sport: - The South African system of public regulation of sport by the State (and, specifically, the issue of the race-based transformation of sport, which involves an apparent government-driven agenda and is unique to the South African jurisdiction); - The courts' treatment to date of the susceptibility of the conduct of sports governing bodies to judicial scrutiny (and of the nature of such bodies as voluntary associations); - Various aspects related to the application of employment laws to the employment of professional athletes in team sports; - The application of common law remedies for breach of contract in the professional sports employment context; - The potential application of the restraint of trade doctrine (in, as the author suggests, an extended_ form) in the context of the freedom of movement of professional athletes; The apparently unsatisfactory state of current South African law in respect of legal protection against commercial misappropriation of aspects of the persona of famous athletes (i.e. in the context of 'image' -or-,'publicity' rights as recognized in certain other jurisdictions); and - An evaluation of the extensive protection (especially in the form of specific legislation in South Africa) against ambush marketing of major sporting events. The author includes some concluding observations regarding the state of South African sports law as compared to other jurisdictions, as well as some comment on expectations for the future development and potential importance of the South African domestic jurisdiction in the application of law to sport.

La création d'environnements attrayants pour les investisseurs est récemment devenu une priorité pour les spécialistes du développement, qui conseillent aux pays en voie de développement d'adopter les « meilleures pratiques » d'affaires utilisés dans les pays développés. Bien qu'on reconnaisse que le transfert de modèles juridiques d'un pays à un autre entraîne souvent des résultats décevants, la question du niveau de compatibilité requis entre les modèles transférés et le pays importateur est le plus souvent ignorée ou considérée comme une question technique relevant de la compétence des professionnels du droit locaux. Dans ce processus, pratiquement aucune place n'est faite au point de vue des utilisateurs finaux des nouvelles normes et institutions. La présente thèse se fonde sur une étude empirique de l'impact de la réforme du droit des affaires relativement en matière d'exécution des contrats. Dans une première partie, les hypothèses sur lesquelles les réformes actuelles se fondent sont examinées à la lumière de contributions provenant de divers champs disciplinaires. Divers facteurs considérés comme expliquant les effets limités des réformes entreprises jusqu'à présent sont présentés. La deuxième partie analyse le contenu de 30 entretiens en profondeur réalisés auprès de petites et moyennes entreprises de Dakar, Sénégal. Les entretiens révèlent que les PMEs dakaroises font preuve d'une grande flexibilité dans l'exécution de leurs contrats d'affaires, et que la qualité des institutions juridiques et judiciaires joue un rôle peu important dans les décisions qu'ils prennent à cet égard. L'environnement général dans lequel elles opèrent, qui se caractérise par la présence de contraintes financières importantes, un haut niveau d'inceritude et une grande interdépendance entre les entreprises, constitue le facteur le plus important pour expliquer le comportement des entreprises. La troisième part

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E-commerce refers to all forms of commercial transactions that involve individuals and organizations based on the electronic processing of data. Mobile commerce (M-commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services using mobile telephones or personal digital assistants (PDA). M-commerce is emerging in Africa and South Africa especially as either a complement or an alternative to e-commerce as originally conceived, though there are arguments that mobile telephone technology “m-commerce” will surpass “e-commerce” as the method of choice for digital commerce transactions. This paper identifies the challenges in adopting e-commerce/m-commerce practices for economic development and competition in International trade. The liberalisation of the telecommunications sector on which e-commerce and m-commerce practices depend is being given priority by the majority of African governments. Despite advances in e-commerce and m-commerce practices in Africa, the growth of e-commerce and m-commerce has been slow. Impediments include low levels of internet penetration and limited communication infrastructure. To meet this problem, the UN adopted through the UN Commission on International Trade (UNCITRAL), Model Law on E-Commerce to help in the harmonisation of e-commerce/m-commerce related laws. Challenges are identified and recommendation made on how to improve the regulatory framework and create an environment conducive to investment and economic development.

En droit civil, l’achalandage est souvent confondu avec la clientèle. L’un et l’autre permettraient à une entreprise de protéger la valeur que représente la relation qu’elle entretient avec ses clients habituels. Un droit patrimonial, donc, assurant la conservation de la clientèle sans égard à la force d’attraction de l’entreprise, c’est-à-dire sa capacité à retenir, mais aussi à attirer d’autres clients. Pourtant, la force d’attraction d’une entreprise constitue l’élément-clef de la valorisation juridique des efforts accomplis pour conserver et développer un marché, que ce soit par l’octroi d’un « droit à la clientèle » ou la protection, en common law, du goodwill. Signifiant « le fait d’attirer la clientèle », le concept d’achalandage incarne cette vis attractiva et permet de protéger la relation privilégiée d’une entreprise avec le public au-delà de sa clientèle régulière. L’achalandage ne devrait pas, par ailleurs, être réduit à ses différentes sources attractives, que sont les actifs et compétences dont l’entreprise dispose. Prenant au contraire la forme d’un « droit négatif » sur la force d’attraction dégagée par ces sources, l’achalandage constitue, malgré son caractère accessoire et volatile, un bien en soi.

My main theoretical contention is that status hierarchies provide a source of guidance to firms for resolving disputes. A status hierarchy implies a system of deference rules among firms. When disputes arise, deference rules can provide a basis for shared expectations and protocols of conduct about how technical ambiguities should be resolved. In many contexts, technical merit is difficult to assess. However, deference rules can operate as social conventions to which firms default, helping to align potentially incompatible expectations. Within this general framework, my dissertation examines how competitors in the semiconductor industry manage uncertain and frequently overlapping patent rights. In practice, patent rights are highly imperfect legal instruments when it comes to demarcating each firm's contributions to innovation in the industry. Patent disputes arise because of the ambiguity this creates about how much of the collective market returns to innovation each firm is entitled to receive. Despite the prolific patenting and propensity for disputes, the industry has remarkably not ground to a halt from runaway litigation. Litigation events, while significant, are rare. I suggest that this degree of order is, at least partly, attributable to status processes. Status can operate as a stabilizing force in the market, helping to generate orderly competition in the face of disputes. To examine whether this is the case in the semiconductor industry, I theorize that disputes are less easily resolved when the parties involved face greater status ambiguity, i.e. are less clearly differentiated from one another in status. Under status ambiguity, deference rules lose the rule-like, universal quality that makes them persuasive in resolving disputes. This has two consequences. First, firms facing low status ambiguity are less likely to be involved in patent litigation than are firms facing high status ambiguity. Patent litigation events represent failures to resolve patent disputes out of court. Second, firms facing low status ambiguity increase their product line sizes more than do firms facing high status ambiguity. The threat of difficult-to-resolve patent disputes represents a cost that can deter firms from bringing products to market.

Milletlerarası Özel Hukukta Kambiyo Senetleri başlığını taşıyan çalışmamız, üç bölümden oluşmaktadır. Bu konuyu seçmemizin başlıca nedeni, kambiyo senetleri alanında yapılan (veya yapılacak olan) yeknesaklaştırma çalışmalarının milletlerarası özel hukuk alanına etkilerini ortaya çıkarmaktır.Tezimizin Birinci Bölümünde, kambiyo senetleri (ticarî senetler) başlığı altında, öncelikle kanunlar ihtilâfı hukuku açısından önem arz eden kıymetli evrak ve kambiyo senetlerinin bazı konuları üzerinde genel hatlarıyla durulmuştur. Daha sonra, yabancılık unsuru, vasıflandırma, atıf, bağlama noktaları gibi kambiyo senetlerine ilişkin olarak ortaya çıkan kanunlar ihtilâfı hukukunun genel problemleri incelenmiştir. Son olarak, kambiyo senetlerine uygulanacak hukuka ilişkin olarak Cenevre Konvansiyonları sistemi ile Anglo-sakson hukuk sistemi genel olarak incelenmiştir.Tezimizin İkinci Bölümünde, milletlerarası özel hukuk düzenlemelerinde kambiyo senetleri başlığı altında, öncelikle kambiyo senetlerine ilişkin uyuşmazlıklarda milletlerarası yetki üzerinde durulmuştur. Bu konuya ilişkin olarak, Brüksel Konvansiyonu, Brüksel I Tüzüğü ve La Haye Konvansiyon taslağı gibi milletlerarası sözleşmeler incelenmiştir. Sonra, uygulanacak hukukun tespitinde faydalanılan taahhütlerin birliği ve taahhütlerin bağımsızlığı esasları ele alınmıştır. Anglo-sakson hukuk sisteminde kambiyo senetlerine ilişkin düzenlemeler incelendikten sonra, diğer sistem içinde kalan Cenevre konvansiyonları üzerinde durulmuştur.Tezimizin Üçüncü Bölümünde, Türk milletlerarası özel hukukunda kambiyo senetleri başlığı altında, yine öncelikle milletlerarası yetki konusu ele alınmıştır. Uygulanacak hukuk kısmında vasıflandırma üzerinde durulduktan sonra, önce poliçe ve bonolara uygulanacak hukuk, daha sonra çeke uygulanacak hukuk inceleme konusu yapılmıştır. Uygulanacak hukuka ilişkin incelemelerimizde önce ehliyet, şekil gibi kambiyo senedinin geçerlik şartlarına ilişkin konuları, sonra sırasıyla kambiyo taahhüdünün hükümlerine ve kambiyo taahhüdünün icrasına uygulanacak hukuk ile ilgili konular ele alınmıştır. Our study, under the title of Commercial Papers in Private International Law comprises three chapters. The main reason in choosing this subject is that reveal effects of unification works in the commercial papers on the field of private international law.In the first chapter of the thesis, under the title of commercial papers, first some subjects of negotiable instruments law and commercial papers which critically important for conflict of laws have been mentioned. Next, general matters of conflict of laws such as foreign element, classification, renvoi and connecting factors have been examined respectively. Lastly the system of Geneva Conventions and Anglo-sakson law system have been examined generally relating to applicable law.In the second chapter of the thesis, under the title of commercial papers in arrangements of private international law, first international jurisdiction dealing with the conflicts of commercial papers have been dwelled upon. International conventions such as Brussel Convention, Council Regulation (EC) No. 44/2001 and Draft of Hague Convention on Jurisdiction and Foreign Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters regarding this subject have been examined. Next, the principle of combination of stipulations and the principle of independency of stipulations are used in determination of law applicable have been handled. After the arrangements of Anglo-sakson law were examined, the other system, Geneva Conventions? rules have been dwelled upon.In the third chapter of the thesis, under the title of commercial papers in Turkish private international law, first international jurisdiction has been handled. First the classification, then applicable law to bills of exchange and promissory note and applicable law to cheque has been examined. In this part, terms of validity of commercial papers such as capacity, form, applicable law to obligations arising out of a commercial paper and applicable law to subjects regarding discharge of a commercial paper have been handled respectively.