Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Letters of credit and demand guarantees play a prominent role in financing international trade. They provide assurance of payment and security for the performance of contractual obligations and have been described as the ‘lifeblood’ of international commerce. Autonomy is the central principle for the instruments of letters of credit and demand guarantees. Under the autonomy principle, the bank’s undertaking to pay for the beneficiary ought to be independent of the diversity of other relationships arising from the underlying contract. In spite of the autonomous nature of these instruments, in certain cases, the national laws will recognise some exceptions or limitations that restrict the application of the doctrine of autonomy. Exceptions such as fraud, nullity, and illegality will allow the national courts to interfere and override the autonomy doctrine by considering other matters, even those concerning the underlying contract. Furthermore, the exceptions of unconscionability or abuse of rights have an effective role in providing deep solutions, especially with regard to the problem of abusive calls for demand guarantees. The autonomy principle is recognised under Libyan commercial law but has yet to form the subject of serious academic literature covering its legal aspects. This study, in part, aims to fill that gap and will examine the extent to which legal aspects govern the principle of autonomy and its exceptions under Libyan law with reference to the new Libyan Commercial Code. A comparison of the laws in England, Libya, and Egypt will be conducted to examine how legal matters concerning autonomy and its restrictions in their laws are addressed. Furthermore, consideration will be given to the experience of Singapore, particularly with regard to the unconscionability and nullity exceptions. The results of this study will consider many different exceptions to autonomy and suggest that fraud is not the only exception to autonomy and that it is not imperative that all exceptions in letters of credit be equally applied to demand guarantees.

Aujourd'hui plus qu'hier, la médiation suscite l’intérêt tant des chercheurs, des praticiens, que des politiques. Cet intérêt se matérialise notamment par les différents cadres juridiques dont elle bénéficie dans plusieurs législations. Afin de promouvoir la médiation au sein de ses États membres, L’Organisation pour l’Harmonisation en Afrique du Droit des Affaires (OHADA) a adopté le 23 novembre 2017 un Acte Uniforme relatif à la Médiation (AUM). Après avoir adopté depuis plus de deux décennies un Acte uniforme sur l’arbitrage, l’organisation régionale confirme sa volonté de promouvoir les modes alternatifs de règlement de conflits dans le domaine du droit des affaires. Cependant, l’AUM est un instrument juridique particulier attendu qu'il est le premier de son genre à s’appliquer également aux domaines non encore régis par le droit OHADA. Toutefois, si la médiation tend à se développer de plus en plus, il convient de prendre garde à ce que cette évolution, notamment en ce qui concerne son encadrement légal, ne conduise pas à sa dénaturation. Voilà l’un des défis auquel est également soumis le législateur OHADA.

Section 19(1) of the current Companies Act 71 of 2008 states that once a company is incorporated in accordance with this Act, it is considered as a juristic person and exists indefinitely until its name is removed from the companies register. It exists independently from its shareholders and controllers. This effect grants the company with characteristics of a natural person. This analogy implies complete independence of the company. However, this concept finds refuge from the English legal system and was later adopted by South African company law. This notion provides some legal protection to businesses and shields their owners from personal liability for the company's debts and commitments. Companies can use this to enter new markets, reduce their taxes, and take advantage of advantageous business environments. Furthermore, this doctrine promotes joint ventures and partnerships among enterprises from many countries, allowing them to share resources and risks. As a result, this allows international enterprises to benefit by conducting international transactions, expanding abroad, and entering contracts in foreign countries. However, like any other concept, it is susceptible to abuse. Individuals take advantage of it to benefit themselves. This is detrimental to the significance of this doctrine. This dissertation aims to look deeply into this concept, by examining its origins and influence throughout the years and during its current application in the South African legal framework and highlight instances where this doctrine will be set aside. This will be conducted by fully analysing Salomon’s case and the influence it has over current company law. More importantly, the author will further examine the significance of this doctrine in modern company law. This will be done by testing the application of this doctrine to modern corporations and challenges they face.

This thesis considers whether jurisdictional exigencies should influence competition law enforcement, with a specific focus on merger analysis. It examines various approaches and schools of thought regarding the goals of competition law and how these play out within jurisdictional parameters. The history of enforcement of American antitrust is scrutinised to establish the nature of the interplay between greater economic policy direction and the goals of competition law. The study also explores the issue of convergence and whether developing jurisdictions should align their competition law to that of developed jurisdictions with mature competition law.

Dans un marché bancaire oligopolistique, marqué par un nombre limité d'institutions bancaires et financières offrant des services bancaires de plus en plus innovants et attractifs à une quantité innombrable de consommateurs, le système bancaire ouvert a engendré la multiplicité de ces services, grâce aux entreprises de technologie financière qui se présentent comme des concurrentes de taille face aux banques traditionnelles. Désormais, le consommateur peut procéder à des transactions électroniques, dont celles relatives au paiement ou au transfert électronique de fonds, sans devoir passer au comptoir de sa banque traditionnelle. Depuis la mise en place du Règlement général sur la protection des données et de la Directive révisée sur les services de paiement au niveau de l'Union européenne, les entreprises commerciales peuvent avoir accès aux renseignements personnels, dont les données financières des clients de banques, notamment pour initier un paiement, par le truchement des interfaces de programmation d'applications. Toutefois, le traitement des renseignements personnels des consommateurs par les entreprises commerciales augmente le risque de vol d'identité, étant donné la présence d'une quantité impressionnante de données sur le Web, sans un contrôle adéquat pour en assurer la confidentialité. Les conséquences d'une fuite de ces données sont pourtant non négligeables, aussi bien à l'égard de la banque, de la personne concernée que de l'État qui doit en assurer une protection optimale. Devant ce phénomène où le consommateur est vulnérable, l'État intervient pour le protéger et contrebalancer le déséquilibre dans sa relation contractuelle avec les prestataires de services financiers.

The objective of this study is to understand and explore the rapid pace at which ML has evolved and the global and local impact thereof.

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Ships, the high-value asset used in both seagoing and inland navigation, and in which various legal and natural persons have interests, must be secured against legal risks arising from any cross-border legal divergence. Legal certainty of ownership of the ship is therefore desirable but it is under challenge with regard to the judicial sale of a ship: the effects of a judicial sale may be denied in a jurisdiction other than the place where it was sold under the principles of state jurisdiction. Multiple efforts have been made to address legal uncertainty. Particularly important is a new treaty governing the international effects of judicial sales: the United Nations Convention on the International Effects of Judicial Sales of Ships (Beijing Convention). This dissertation is intended to contribute to that process by setting out two tasks; first, it seeks to identify the obstacles to the recognition of foreign judicial sales, providing additional knowledge which may aid national legal orders when deciding recognition approaches; second, it looks for a universal solution that better guarantees recognition which would benefit shipping. A comparative legal research exercise exploring similarities and dissimilarities in the municipal and international laws governing the recognition and sale procedures is undertaken. Research results are presented in this kappa and research papers, exhibiting the profuse difficulties a party seeking recognition may encounter in the current legal framework, and explains the new recognition approach under the Beijing Convention. Based on the research findings, a universal solution is proposed that avoids révision au fond, defines the finality of a judicial sale, and sets forth a fixed number of grounds for denial of recognition which may bring greater certainty. This purported optimal solution should guarantee equal treatment for all foreign sales seeking recognition before the registry while minimising the registrar’s burden of finding and examining foreign laws. In the interest of universality, this solution better accommodates disagreeing principles underlying certain aspects of the sale, viz., the ship’s location at the time of sale, the notification of sale, and the variance in the standard sale, namely, court-approved private sales, in a manner that more states may accept. This solution is largely in line with the recognition approach under the Beijing Convention. Considering the greater legal certainty the new instrument may bring, ratification is supported.

L’invasion de l’Ukraine par la Fédération de Russie le 24 février 2022 marque l’application de régimes de sanctions internationales économiques et financières aux navires de grande plaisance. Ce mémoire prétend décrire ces différents régimes de sanctions et expliquer avec une approche critique que l’application de certains régimes de sanctions aux navires de grande plaisance peut être remise en cause. Les mesures de gel et leur pendant (l’interdiction de mise à disposition de fonds ou de ressources économiques au profit de la personne ou entité sanctionnée) ont vocation à inciter un changement de comportement auprès de leur cible. Ainsi, cette étude vise également à montrer l’efficacité relative des mesures de gel de navires de grande plaisance dans la poursuite de cet objectif. The invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation on 24 February 2022 marks the application of international economic and financial sanctions to yachts. The subject aims to describe these different sanctions regimes and to explain critically that the application of some of them to yachts may be called into question. The freezing measures and their counterpart (the prohibition on making funds or economic resources available to the sanctioned person or entity) are intended to encourage a change in the behaviour of their target. This study therefore also aims to show the relative effectiveness of measures to freeze yachts in achieving this objective.

Les choke-points maritimes sont des passages vitaux du commerce mondial empruntés chaque jour par un nombre impressionnant de navires. Bien que ces passages soient les piliers de nos routes maritimes, ils sont pourtant largement méconnus du grand public, mais aussi des acteurs du monde maritime. Ancré dans la mondialisation, beaucoup ne les résume qu’à de simples lieux de passages, or ils sont des artères économiques aux multiples facettes. Générateur de grands enjeux financier et diplomatique, ils présentent également des risques importants pour la navigation, tels que la piraterie ou le trafic d'armes. Enfin il est nécessaire le développement de routes alternatives pour soulager ces passages saturés par le trafic mondial, sans oublier la protection des océans et des espèces vivantes. Maritime chokepoints are vital passages in world trade, used every day by an impressive number of ships. Although these passages are the pillars of our maritime routes, they are largely unknown to the general public, as well as to those involved in the maritime world. Anchored in globalization, many people think of them as mere transit points, yet they are multi-faceted economic arteries. Generating major financial and diplomatic stakes, they also present major risks for shipping, such as piracy and arms trafficking. Last but not least, alternative routes need to be developed to relieve these passages, which are saturated by global traffic, not to mention the protection of oceans and living species.

IKS stakeholders often debate the divide between indigenous and other knowledge systems. IP rightsholders seek advice on how they can strengthen and secure their proprietary rights or broaden the public domain, while other interest groups such as indigenous peoples and local communities want to know how the public domain can be enclosed. One reason for this divide seems to be that the IP regime operates in a sphere where the public domain is demarcated by individual rights, as opposed to the indigenous knowledge systems regime where the public domain is demarcated by social embeddedness and connected to the land on which indigenous peoples and local communities live. This problem manifested itself over centuries of colonialism and technological development worldwide, but also because indigenous worldviews do not share the pre-appropriation narrative of the public domain than technological advanced societies. Within the context of this narrative the research question was posed, namely "what are the appropriate legal instruments for protecting Indigenous Knowledge Systems without compromising the public domain?" To answer this question, the public domain was analysed from three perspectives, namely international law instruments, human rights and IP rights. It was found that none of these perspectives lead to a narrow interpretation of the public domain – in fact, they all aim to broaden the public domain. These early findings on the public domain assisted to apply the fundamentals of the public domain to international law instruments and their application to IKS. In this regard it has been shown that the existing international law instruments, as well as the natural evolvement of these instruments over time, adequately provides for the protection and commercial exploitation of IKS worldwide. There is a proviso, though: IKS need to be viewed through the WIPO lens, which provides for the distinct delineation of categories of IKS, namely traditional knowledge, traditional cultural expressions and genetic resources. For example, the Bern Convention is founded on the three principles of droits des auteurs, droit moral, and domaine public. The boundaries of the public domain within the context of IKS can be reconciled with all three of these principles, and national legislators merely need to apply these principles to national legislation. With these insights gained on international law instruments, a few countries were analysed to ascertain how they address their local challenges pertaining to IKS. The countries that were analysed all aimed to appreciate international law instruments to which they are signatories, while they develop country specific IKS-related jurisprudence, although it cannot be said to be the same in each country. None of the findings pertaining to these countries could provide convincing arguments as to why a sui generis system for IKS can work. The research then moved to a legal analysis of South African legislation in relation to IKS. It has been shown that in general, South African legislation on IP is well aligned with international law instruments. These findings assisted with the research question at hand and was instrumental with coming to the early conclusion that IKS neatly fits into South Africa's current IP regimes and their associated public domains. Throughout the thesis, the rights and obligations of IKS rightsholders were demarcated since no right is absolute, as has been shown when the South African Constitution was discussed. In this regard, the droit moral of individuals from indigenous peoples and local communities, as well as the indigenous peoples and local communities, are to be respected. This approach led to more practical measures to ensure that matters such as prior informed consent, secrecy and sacredness, equity and access to TK, TCE and GR and benefit sharing were all understood within the boundaries of the public domain.

Dünya genelinde, uyuşmazlıkların mahkeme dışında alternatif uyuşmazlık çözüm yolları ile çözülmesi konusunda artan bir eğilim bulunmaktadır. Alternatif uyuşmazlık çözüm yollarından biri de arabuluculuktur. Arabuluculuk gönüllülük esasına dayanan bir uyuşmazlık çözme biçimidir. Arabuluculuk sistemi, AB'ye üye bazı ülkeler başta olmak üzere birçok ülkede özellikle ticari uyuşmazlıklarda uygulanmakta ve sonuçları itibariyle tarafları memnun etmekte, yargının yükünün de ciddi şekilde azaltılmasına destek olmaktadır. Yargının iş yükünün hızla arttığı, yargılamadaki gecikmeler nedeniyle adalete duyulan güvenin azaldığı bir ortamda arabuluculuk uygulamaları birçok ülkeye örnek olmaktadır. Ülkemizde de arabuluculuk uygulanmaya başlanmış; hatta en sık karşılaşılan uyuşmazlıklardan iş uyuşmazlıkları, ticari uyuşmazlıklar ve tüketici uyuşmazlıkları dava şartı arabuluculuk kapsamına alınmıştır. Ticari davaların zorunlu arabuluculuk yoluyla çözülmesi uygulamada bazı sorunlara ve çelişkili yargı kararlarının ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur. Arabuluculuk, Ticari Davalar, Ticari Davalarda Arabuluculuk, Avrupa Birliği, Zorunlu Arabuluculuk, Alternatif Uyuşmazlık Çözüm Yolları, Dava Şartı Arabuluculuk, Uzlaşma. There is an increasing trend around the world related with the resolution of disputes through alternative dispute resolution methods out of court. One of the alternative dispute resolution methods' is mediation. Mediation is a form of dispute resolution on a voluntary basis. The mediation system is applied especially in commercial disputes in many countries, also in some member countries of European Union. The mediation not only satisfies the parties in terms of its results but also helps to reduce the burden of the judiciary. In a world where the workload of the judiciary increases rapidly and trust in justice decreases due to delays in the trial, commercial mediation practices in European countries set an example for many other countries. Mediation is not also practised in Turkiye but also mandatory in labor disputes, commercial disputes and consumer disputes. Contradiction and discrepancy between the court decisions and other judicial problems arised arised as a result of mandatory mediation. Mediation, Commercial Disputes, Mediation in Commercial Disputes, European Union, Mandatory Mediation, Alternative Dispute Resolution, Condition of Litigation, Commercial Mediation. Reconciliation, Voluntary Mediation

شركة المساهمة هي شركة أموال، لا يقل عدد شركائها عن سبعة شركاء يسمون بالمساهمين تتمثل حصصهم في الشركة بأسهم متساوية القيمة سهلة التداول لا يسأل هؤلاء عن ديون الشركة الا في حدود قيمة الأسهم التي اكتتبوا فيها، وكأي شركة وجب توفر الأركان الموضوعية العامة والخاصة والشكلية وإذا اختلف أحد هذه الأركان يعرضها للبطلان إما نسبي أو مطلق. وضع المشرع الجزائري طريقتين لتأسيس شركة المساهمة إما باللجوء العلني للادخار أو بدون اللجوء العلني للادخار أو بما يعرف بالتأسيس الفوري وتتميز المرحلتين بإجراءات معقدة، يقوم المؤسسون في كلتي المرحلتين بإعداد القانون الأساسي عن طريق جمعية عامة تأسيسية والمصادقة على الشروط المتفق عليها ووضع الشركة للجمهور قصد الاكتتاب فيها إذا ما لجأ المؤسسون لطريقة اللجوء العلني للادخار . أخيرا تسجيل الشركة في السجل التجاري كخطوة أخيرة من مراحل تأسيس الشركة. وأي مخالفة من شأنها تعطيل السير الحسن لتأسيس الشركة يعرضها للبطلان وتعدا المشرع البطلان إلا قيام مسؤولية مدنية وجزائية بتسليط عقوبات رادعة في حق المتخاذلين والمتعمدين في إفشال مشروع الشركة. A joint stock company is a company of funds, the number of its partners is not less than seven partners called shareholders whose shares in the company are represented by shares of equal value easy to trade, these are not responsible for the company's debts except within the limits of the value of the shares in which they subscribed, and like any company, we must provide the general, private and formal pillars, and if one of these pillars differs, it exposes it to invalidity, either relative or absolute. The Algerian legislator has developed two ways to establish a joint stock company, either by public resort to savings or without public resort to saving, or what is known as immediate incorporation, and the two stages are characterized by complex procedures, the founders in both stages prepare the basic law through a constituent general assembly, ratify the agreed terms and place the company for the public in order to subscribe to it if the founders resort to the method of public resort to savings, so that the company is finally registered in the commercial register as a final step of the company's establishment Any violation that may disrupt the proper functioning of the establishment of the com-pany exposes the company to invalidity and the legislator transgresses the nullity, except for civil and criminal liability to impose deterrent penalties against the negligent and deliberate in thwarting the company's project

La nouveauté du support internet et les spécificités qui le caractérisent ont fait émergé de nouveaux types de dommages causant préjudices aux individus. Également, l’immatérialité du réseau internet et le dépassement des frontières spatiales et géographiques qui caractérise ce réseau a fait élargir d’une part, les auteurs potentiels des faits dommageables, et les victimes potentiels de ces faits. La nécessité de la réparation des victimes de ces dommages a posé la question du fondement de la responsabilité civile des auteurs de ces faits dommageables sur ce réseau. En l’absence d’un cadre juridique spécifique à la responsabilité civile sur internet soit en droit français ou en droit tunisien également, le rattachement des dommages causés sur ce réseau au régime classique de la responsabilité sera la seule solution afin de ne pas laisser ces dommages sans réparation. Réparer les dommages causés sur ce réseau que ce soit sur les fondements subjectifs ou objectifs de la responsabilité civile sera un défi. Cette thèse va traiter la capacité de la matière de la responsabilité civile d’intégrer de nouveaux types de dommages caractérisés comme dommages modernes notamment les dommages du numérique et plus particulièrement, les faits dommageables commis via internet.

Face au développement de la technologie de l’information et de la communication, le contrôle des données à caractère personnel par les individus est devenu un enjeu majeur au sein de l’Union européenne. Le Règlement européen sur la protection des données (RGPD) a ainsi été adopté dans une logique d’empowerement (empouvoirement) de la personne concernée par le traitement, en renforçant la réalité du consentement, évaluée comme la traduction fidèle de la manifestation de volonté. L’évaluation du mécanisme de consentement montre la volonté du législateur de rester fidèle à la volonté de la personne concernée, par la multiplication des garanties s’appliquant à la demande, au contrôle et au retrait du consentement. Or, si le consentement RGPD a été une évolution législative permettant à la personne concernée d’obtenir plus de contrôle de ses données à caractère personnel, force est de constater que ce consentement présente tout de même des limites. Ces limites appellent à une réflexion juridique de fond afin de déterminer les situations où le consentement nécessite des garanties supplémentaires pour être valide ou des précisions supplémentaires pour s’articuler correctement avec d’autres dispositions juridiques et les situations où le consentement est à proscrire du fait de l’incapacité de la personne concernée d’émettre un consentement libre et éclairé.