Bibliographie sélective OHADA

L'État de la situation sur les impacts sociétaux de l'intelligence artificielle et du numérique fait état des connaissances actuelles sur les impacts sociétaux de l'IA et du numérique, structurées autour des sept axes de recherche de l'Obvia : santé, éducation, travail et emploi, éthique et gouvernance, droit, arts et médias, et transition socio-écologique. Hypertrucages, désinformation, empreinte environnementale, droit d'auteur, évolution des conditions de travail… Le document recense les grandes questions de recherche soulevées par le déploiement progressif de ces nouvelles technologies, auxquelles viennent s'ajouter des cas d'usages et de pistes d'action. Il s'impose ainsi comme un outil complet et indispensable pour accompagner la prise de décision dans tous les secteurs bouleversés par ces changements.

L'eau représente un besoin vital pour l'homme. Sous l'effet du changement climatique et en raison de sa mauvaise utilisation, sa disponibilité pour l'utilisation humaine est gravement menacée. En outre, mobiliser les moyens techniques pour en assurer l'accès est coûteux. En conséquence, l'accès à l'eau constitue un enjeu largement investi par les programmes de développement mis en avant par les institutions internationales, à l'instar des Objectifs du Millénaire définis en 2000 et des Objectifs de développement durable de 2015. Les partenariats y sont proposés comme des moyens adaptés pour pallier les déficits d'infrastructures, notamment dans des États en développement. Solution particulièrement encouragée par la Banque mondiale et d'autres institutions financières internationales, la participation privée par le biais de partenariats internationaux est prônée comme une solution de nature à associer les entités publiques généralement chargées des services de l'eau et de l'assainissement avec les entreprises du secteur ayant un savoir-faire reconnu en vue de développer l'accès à l'eau potable. Alors que les partenariats internationaux ont joué un rôle de premier plan dans l'agenda de développement pour favoriser l'accès à l'eau, sont-ils des instruments adaptés pour réaliser le droit à l'eau ? Le droit à l'eau n'a été reconnu que de manière progressive dans le système onusien de protection des droits de l'homme. L'étude met en perspective l'originalité des partenariats internationaux dans le secteur de l'eau et souligne la difficulté à les inscrire dans le cadre normatif qui s'impose pour la réalisation du droit à l'eau. Les partenariats internationaux constituent des ensembles complexes d'instruments juridiques mis en place pour l'accès à l'eau. Malgré des avancées récentes en faveur de la consolidation de la responsabilité des entreprises en matière de de droits de l'homme, la pratique témoigne de ce qu'ils sont insuffisants pour mettre en œuvre pleinement le droit à l'eau.

Le devoir de transparence environnementale et sociale des grandes entreprises, dispositif phare de la Responsabilité Sociale d’Entreprise (RSE), se caractérise par la dualité de sa fonction. Ce devoir consiste pour l’entreprise à apporter une information à ses parties prenantes quant aux impacts environnementaux et sociaux de son activité. Au regard des risques de pratiques de greenwashing ou socialwashing de la part des entreprises, la qualité de l’information apportée est déterminante. Un enchevêtrement de mécanismes de droit dur et de droit souple est ainsi mis en œuvre au service de la pertinence et de la fiabilité des informations. En outre de sa fonction informative, le devoir de transparence environnementale et sociale revêt une fonction régulatrice. L’instauration d’un tel devoir par les pouvoirs publics a pour objectif de guider les entreprises vers une prise en compte effective des impacts décrits dans les documents d’information. En d’autres termes, le devoir de transparence invite l’entreprise à concrétiser son discours en actes tangibles. A cet effet, des mécanismes juridiques et extra-juridiques sont mobilisés, reposant sur les rétributions du marché (sanction réputationnelle notamment) et sur les mutations de la place de l’entreprise dans la société. En définitive, tout l’enjeu du droit de la RSE réside dans sa capacité à élaborer une norme juridique (l’obligation d’information en matière environnementale et sociale) qui soit de nature à susciter le respect par les entreprises d’une norme sociale non sanctionnée juridiquement (la prise en compte effective des enjeux environnementaux et sociaux).

This reprint covers 27 papers published in the Special Issue entitled Corporate Finance, Governance, and Social Responsibility, which examines several topics related to corporate finance, financial modeling, corporate governance, and corporate social responsibility. Corporate finance-related articles (Anton and Afloarei Nucu, 2021; Bae et al., 2023; Kedzior et al., 2020; Lts and Lukason, 2022; Miglo, 2020; Mihail et al., 2021; Mota and Moreira, 2023; Tsolas, 2021; Tudose et al., 2021; and Wen et al., 2021) focus on the drivers of the capital structure and firm performance, the effect of working capital management on profitability, and the link between derivative use and profitability. Regarding financial modeling, stock market volatility was explored during COVID-19 (Gherghina et al., 2021). Corporate governance studies (Aluchna and Kuszewski, 2020; Ararat et al., 2021; Ding and Chea, 2021; Kjrland et al., 2020; Loureno et al., 2021; Lukason and Camacho-Miano, 2020; Maier and Yurtoglu, 2022; Mihail and Dumitrescu, 2021; Mihail et al., 2022; Mihail and Micu, 2021; and Pourmansouri et al., 2022) examine the effect of corporate governance compliance practices, board attributes, or employee stock option plans on bankruptcy risk, performance, firm value, or earnings management. Regarding CSR (Bozos et al., 2022; Rossi et al., 2021; Saeed and Sroufe, 2021; Singh and Hong, 2023; and Tseng and Shih, 2022), the research focuses on how CSR affects financial performance, risk management, or analyst profits estimates.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) and green marketing adoption is a twin trend that is fast becoming a global tendency amongst world economies, irrespective of socio-economic outlook. This paper pedagogically links the two concepts in the Nigeria business climes and explores, through a panoramic view the rate of adoption of CSR and green marketing in Nigeria. This study adopted an exploratory research design vis-à-vis a qualitative research approach. Based on the findings, this paper posits that corporate social responsibility in the Nigerian context is highly “localized” to reflect realities in the Nigerian socio-cultural space. However, green marketing adoption is near impossible for the average Nigerian organization; this is due in part to the enormous funds necessary for implementation of green marketing strategies in their businesses. This study therefore recommends the setting up of trust fund for companies (especially, small scale business) by government; this would give the companies the opportunity to fully develop and adopt green marketing strategy

This study aims to understand the accounting effects of the Corona pandemic in more depth and clarity, where the study explores the accounting choices during the pandemic period and the impact of the firm's strategic orientation and its social responsibility performance on those choices. Using data from non-financial Saudi companies, the accounting choices divided into aggressive accounting strategy and conservative accounting strategy, and regression models used to examine the study hypotheses. The results of the study provide a clearer and in-depth vision about the nature of accounting practices during the pandemic and indicated that business strategy affects accounting choices, while corporate social responsibility does not affect. The results can imply useful information for the market regulators that help them in controlling and stabilizing the market, as well as for professional accounting organizations to help them issue guidelines for accounting work during crises.

Since the earlier indirect Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) provisions failed to hold investors responsible for human rights abuses, the recent hardening process of direct CSR clauses has resulted in incorporating CSR clauses under sections or chapters entitled “investors obligations” and tying CSR obligations to binding human rights and environmental prohibitions, as well as to human rights obligations established by the host state's legislation. This paper provides a non-exhaustive analysis of recent developments in treaty practice based on research primarily sourced from investment agreements concluded between 2012 and 2021, doctrinal input, and normative analysis. As shown in this paper the hardening process has not yet been completed, and reformations are necessary. Specifically, new investment agreements should enshrine investor human rights obligations as legally binding obligations, consider violations of these CSR obligations as part of investment disputes and provide direct remedies to victims. This study contributes to the literature on the international responsibility of TNCs with regard to human rights by examining the process of hardening up the CSR obligations within investment agreements as an approach that could lead to effective human rights protection.

This thesis investigates the relationship between cross-country mandatory environmental, social and governance (ESG) regulations and firm-level outcomes, such as ESG performance, corporate finance, and investment, for both developing and developed countries. ESG performance is initially examined to determine whether mandatory ESG regulations affect it and to what extent. Second, the study investigates the impact of mandatory ESG on corporate finance and investment. Lastly, the study explores whether mandatory ESG regulations affect firm-level outcomes based on countries' governance and economic systems, and industries. The study uses a large sample of 69,010 firm-years across 73 countries, over the period 2005 – 2020 to address the foregoing issues. In addressing the impact of mandatory ESG regulations on ESG performance, the study employs a difference-in-differences (DiD) design. The DiD technique can isolate the effect of regulatory shocks to firm-level outcomes. According to the DiD analysis conducted, cross-country mandatory ESG improves firm-level ESG performance in developed countries, but not in developing countries. The study also concludes that mandatory ESG regulations have a positive impact only on ESG components in developed countries and have a more dominant impact on environmental (E) component. The findings are robust to a range of checks and test cases, including a triple DiD design set-up and propensity score-matched sample. The study employs an investment Euler equation framework and generalised method of moments (GMM) estimators to explore how mandatory ESG impacts corporate finance and investment. Euler frameworks account for the dynamic nature of investment, whereas GMMs account for endogenous dynamics in dynamic models. The study demonstrates that mandatory ESG increases corporate investment by increasing firms' access to external funds. The findings are robust to a battery of tests, including a triple DiD design set-up, propensity score-matched sample and the parallel trends assumption. Using an investment Euler equation framework and the GMM estimators, the study explores whether the impact of mandatory ESG on corporate finance and investment is dependent on a country's governance and economic system. When mandatory ESG is affected by country factors such as governance systems and economic well-being, the effect of mandatory ESG on investment via internal finance channel persists, according to the study. However, while consistent results are found in developed countries, inconsistent results are found in developing countries. According to the study, oil, gas, and mining firms are likely to respond effectively to mandatory ESG regulations because of increased scrutiny and pressure. Overall, the findings from the study imply that cross-country mandatory ESG has had a positive impact on corporate ESG performance, finance, and investment. For firms located in developed countries, these findings hold consistently, while for those located in developing countries, the opposite holds true. Also, the study reveals that firms in the oil, gas, and mining industries effectively respond to regulatory requirements. As a result, this study provides policy makers and accountants with an understanding of how mandatory ESG impacts firm ESG activities and performance, which is crucial for regulatory reforms.

This paper discusses the practice of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and its challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa. The main purpose is to highlight and clarify the gaps between CSR regulations and human rights abuses caused by business organizations.

Left alone, economic integration initiatives, which aim to promote growth through investment and trade liberalization, do not automatically generate win-win outcomes for all stakeholders, or lead to the inclusive economic growth and sustainable development of participating countries. This situation which is due among others to possible market failures and externalities of corporations’ activities, has increasingly become a matter of concern with the numerous corruption scandals; human rights violations and environmental degradation involving corporations observed in a recent past. How therefore to continue promoting economic integration while ensuring socially responsible conducts from businesses in societies where they operate? One approach that has recently gained traction is the institutionalization of corporate social responsibility (CSR) clauses in trade and investment agreements. This paper analyses 10 African regional trade and investment agreements concluded between 2000 and 2020 to determine the extent to which they converge with this trend and the approach adopted in regulating CSR. The research complements the literature on the nexus between international law and CSR in the African context. Laissées à elles-mêmes, les initiatives d'intégration économique, qui visent à promouvoir la croissance par la libéralisation commerciale et économique, ne génèrent pas automatiquement des résultats gagnant-gagnant pour toutes les parties prenantes, ou ne conduisent pas à la croissance économique inclusive et au développement durable des pays participants. Cette situation, qui est due entre autres à d’éventuelles défaillances du marché et à des externalités des activités des entreprises, est devenue de plus en plus préoccupante avec les nombreux scandales de corruption, de violation des droits de l’homme et de dégradation de l’environnement impliquant des entreprises. Comment donc continuer à promouvoir l'intégration économique tout en garantissant des comportements socialement responsables des entreprises dans les sociétés où elles opèrent ? Une approche qui a récemment gagné du terrain est l'institutionnalisation des clauses de responsabilité sociale des entreprises (RSE) dans les accords de commerce et d'investissement. Cet article analyse 10 accords régionaux africains de commerce et d'investissement conclus entre 2000 et 2020 pour déterminer dans quelle mesure ils convergent avec cette tendance à l’institutionnalisation des clauses sur la RSE, et l'approche adoptée dans la réglementation de la RSE. La recherche complète la littérature sur le lien entre le droit international et la RSE dans le contexte africain.

L’objet de cet article est de révéler un modèle de RSE issu du discours des entrepreneurs en contexte africain. Les concepts de justification et de légitimation, associés à l’approche du mécanisme conciliateur sont mobilisés pour analyser le contenu des entretiens menés auprès de dix entrepreneurs de TPE implantées au Cameroun. Il apparait que, dans ce contexte, l’entrepreneur perçoit sa responsabilité en se situant à la fois dans des mondes domestique, marchand et spirituel. Le modèle de la RSE qui émerge est tridimensionnel. Il correspond à une agrégation des responsabilités généalogique, géo-économique et spirituelle, chacune étant ancrée respectivement dans un des mondes suscités. Les discours et pratiques de RSE à promouvoir sur ce continent pourraient s’en inspirer.

Globally, companies pursue profitability; they want lower prices for the goods they buy and for the services they use. To gain profit and keep their prices low, they contribute to human rights violations and/or the devastation of the environment. The UNGP is the UN unanimously endorsed instrument that encourages states to pass legislation to compel companies to exercise human rights due diligence and to report on their efforts. The United Nations Guiding Principles (UNGP) impose a duty on companies to conduct human rights due diligence that apprises them of possible human rights or environmental risk exposure in their international operations. States have a responsibility to assist those harmed by a company’s activities to seek judicial relief. The UNGP is a soft law instrument but has had a major effect in the field of business and human rights. Though a voluntary obligation, the UNGP has become the reference document and is used by Civil Society Organisations (CSO) to pressure states into passing regulations on business and human rights. In 2016 Germany passed a National Action Plan (NAP) and the Lieferkettensorgfaltspflichtgesetz (Supply Chain Due Diligence Act) in 2021. France passed a Vigilance Law (Loi de Vigilance) in 2017. Additionally, a UN resolution has initiated a treaty-making process, which might lead to an internationally legally binding instrument that will articulate companies’ responsibilities to avoid, mitigate and remedy human rights violations that their activities cause. The South African government’s response to the UNGP has focused on negotiating a legally binding instrument at an intergovernmental level. This research examines three countries’ varying responses to the UNGP, a soft law instrument. In February 2022 the EU Commission published a proposed directive on corporate sustainability due diligence. The proposed EU legislation aims to advance respect for human rights and environmental protection. The goal is to create a level playing field within the European Union which leads to the exploration of the role China plays in a globalised world. China aims to be more than the world's factory and to become a leader in innovation and high-end manufacturing.

Qu’il soit de substance, issu des textes internationaux, le principe de précaution ne définit aucune règle d’incrimination précise en droit interne ; ce qui contraste avec le principe de légalité qui dispose qu’on ne peut être condamné pénalement qu’en vertu d’un texte pénal précis et clair. Ce qui rend, en principe, le principe de précaution inopérant sur le terrain de la responsabilité pénale. Cependant, le juge peut, dans une certaine mesure, insinuer le principe de précaution dans certaines incriminations afin d’accorder une meilleure protection aux victimes d’accidents, tel que celui de la médecine, suite à l’incertitude que contiennent les innovations de la science et de la technologie.

Du fait de son pouvoir de régulation, la Responsabilité Sociale de l’Entreprise (RSE) est foncièrement un instrument au service du développement durable. Ainsi, l’émergence et la diffusion de cet instrument en Afrique subsaharienne doit répondre à plusieurs besoins, au premier rang desquels figurent la réalisation des Objectifs du Développement Durable (ODD) et la contribution à l’atteinte des Objectifs du Millénaire pour le Développement (OMD). C’est dans cette perspective que les entreprises multinationales trouvent leur place et sont visées par le champ normatif de la RSE. Le questionnement éthique et social des entreprises multinationales en Afrique subsaharienne conduit inéluctablement à rechercher différents leviers de régulation sous les trois (3) aspects, à savoir environnemental, social et économique, pour la mise en œuvre opérationnelle de la RSE. Sans occulter le foisonnement d’initiatives RSE, y compris les démarches volontaires des entreprises multinationales souvent matérialisées par les codes de conduite, un système de régulation contraignant semble se configurer à l’échelle internationale sous l’impulsion des organisations internationales, la pression des ONG et des parties prenantes dont les investisseurs. Par conséquent, les entreprises multinationales, soucieuses de préserver leur image, leur légitimité ainsi que l’ancrage dans les territoires d’implantation, doivent garantir la transparence et la cohérence des pratiques, face au manque d’effectivité souvent constaté des discours RSE qui ne répondent qu’aux finalités marketing et commerciale. Cette instrumentalisation justifie l’immixtion du droit et la construction progressive d’un véritable droit de la RSE, avec une approche à la fois réglementaire tendant à favoriser la production de normes à caractère contraignant, du moins exemptes de toute instrumentalisation et stratégique en procurant un avantage compétitif aux entreprises engagées en RSE par la voie de la consommation responsable et pour que celles-ci apportent une contribution au développement collectif durable des territoires d’implantation.

L’étude de la protection des entreprises à l’aune de l’approche socialement responsable a permis de définir le contenu de cette approche et de montrer son importance pour les entreprises. D’origine anglo-américaine, l’approche socialement responsable est un ensemble de normes éthiques et juridiques visant à intégrer les critères extra-financiers (Environnement, Social et Gouvernance) dans la gestion de l’entreprise. Cette approche fait l’objet de controverses doctrinales. D’aucuns estiment qu’elle est inutile et n’est qu’un instrument de marketing pour les entreprises. D’autres évoquent un outil pertinent de protection des entreprises. En effet, la présente étude démontre que l’approche socialement responsable permet aux entreprises d’identifier les risques extra-financiers liés à leurs activités qui pourraient compromettre leur existence. Une fois les risques identifiés, les entreprises doivent élaborer un plan de prévoyance qui permet de les réduire et de les traiter en cas de réalisations. En outre, l’intérêt social étant l’instrument juridique de protection par excellence des entreprises, l’approche socialement responsable oblige les entreprises à agir dans leur intérêt social en considération des critères extra-financiers. L’approche socialement responsable permet également aux entreprises de diversifier leurs sources de financement par l’investissement socialement responsable. Si la protection des entreprises à travers l’approche socialement responsable est certaine, il n’en demeure pas moins qu’elle est perfectible notamment sur les modalités de contrôle des critères extra-financiers. Les contrôleurs de l’approche socialement responsable doivent être indépendants par rapport aux entreprises contrôlées. Au surplus, les législateurs français et européens doivent préciser les modalités de contrôle de la destination réelle des fonds récoltés par les entreprises sur les marchés financiers. Ce contrôle permettra de renforcer la confiance des investisseurs socialement responsables à l’égard des émetteurs. La fiabilité du contrôle des critères extra-financiers est gage de sécurité financière pour les entreprises. The study of business protection in the light of the socially responsible approach has made it possible to define the content of such approach and to show its importance for companies. Originated from Anglo-Saxons, the socially responsible approach is a set of ethical and legal standards aimed at integrating extra-financial criteria (Environment, Social and Governance) in the management of a company. This approach is subject to many doctrinal controversies. Some believe that it is useless and is only a marketing tool for companies. Others refer to a relevant business protection tool. Indeed, this study demonstrates that the socially responsible approach allows companies to identify the extra-financial risks related to their activities that could compromise their existence. Once the risks have been identified, companies must develop a contingency plan that allows them to reduce such risks and to deal with their occurrence. Moreover, since the social interest is the legal instrument of protection par excellence for companies, the socially responsible approach constrains companies to act in their social interest considering the extra-financial criteria. The socially responsible approach also allows companies to diversify their sources of financing through socially responsible investment. If the protection of companies through the socially responsible approach is certain, the fact remains that the approach can be improved particularly on the methods of control of extra-financial criteria. Controllers of the socially responsible approach must be independent of the companies inspected. In addition, French and European legislators must specify the methods of control of the real destination of the funds collected by companies on the financial markets. This control will strengthen the confidence of socially responsible investors in issuers. The reliability of the control of extra-financial criteria is a guarantee of financial security for companies.

The main objective of this thesis is to explore and describe the possibilities for legal operationalization of CSR in contract law, sales law and consumer sales law, marketing law and company law. A supplementary aim is to identify regulation on and illustrate the regulatory context of CSR. The illustration provides a background and a framework for the main objective of the study, as well as confirms the legal relevance of CSR. Legal operationalization of CSR requires that CSR is anchored in law and that there are mechanisms for enforcement available. In contract law, CSR is legally anchored when a CSR condition follows from a contract. In a Swedish sales law context, legal anchoring takes place when a buyer’s expectation regarding CSR is not met and this is considered a defect, fel. From a marketing law point of view, the possibilities to consider a CSR statement an unfair commercial practice are relevant. In a company law context, CSR is legally anchored when included in the articles of association, in an instruction from the general meeting or the board, in the board’s internal guidelines or in the remuneration guidelines of the company. In all, contract parties, shareholders and the board are “strong” legal subjects, in that they are able to proactively formulate and anchor CSR norms in law. In company law, the understanding of the company’s interest and purpose, as well as the business case for CSR and the understanding of profit create borders within which the company law operationalization of CSR functions. Sales law and marketing law offer retroactive tools to market actors. The possibilities to anchor CSR in marketing law are vast, whereas the applicability of the sales law rules to a large extent is dependent on the connection between the (failed) CSR expectation and the sold goods. The remedies in the explored areas of law typically do not protect the CSR interest in question directly.

Symptomatique de la transformation technologique du droit d’hier et représentatif du droit de demain, le mobile money, ne bouleverse pas seulement le paysage financier (en l’occurrence par la remise en cause du monopole bancaire, la fragmentation des opérations bancaires et la pénétration des acteurs non bancaires notamment les Opérateurs de Télécommunication Mobile dans le paysage financier). Il heurte surtout la conception monocentrique du droit, encore omniprésente et omnipotente dans notre champ d’étude. En effet, le mobile money encore qualifié de monnaie mobile nous permet de témoigner de façon brute et factuelle de la réalité du pluralisme juridique et d’exposer dans une construction cohérente les raisons de la genèse des foyers normatifs privés ainsi que de comprendre la coexistence de plusieurs ordres juridiques dans un espace. C’est dans ce cadre que les multiples crises (crises des institutions étatiques, crises de la loi, carence et inadéquation de loi, inintelligibilité des lois, inefficacité et ineffectivité du droit étatique) qui touchent la sphère étatique ont été indexées comme sources de coûts de transaction, d’imprévisibilité, d’insécurité juridique, poussant les acteurs privés en quête d’un minimum de sécurité juridique et d’un droit adapté à leurs besoins à se livrer à une production normative. Les normes privées de la monnaie mobile ainsi produites ont, en raison de leur pertinence et de leur effectivité été incorporées dans la sphère publique, rendant par la même occasion difficile toute analyse (sans risque de se tromper) pertinente sur les sources réelles des normes en vigueur dans la sphère publique. Cette incorporation normative qui matérialise le dialogue normatif permanent entre la sphère privée et la sphère publique nous a conduit à esquisser une théorie d’interaction normative inter sphériques. Cette dernière nous semble indispensable non seulement pour rendre compte des rapports entre les ordres juridiques, entre les sources étatiques et les sources non étatiques du droit mais également pour penser la conception et la production du droit de demain. This paper defends the theory of legal pluralism in Cameroonian-CEEAC (Economic community central African States) legal order and aims to demonstrate that the omnipresence of monism in this area is incapable of describing the real legal world and the law as it is. A preliminary question not always considered in the debate, regards the existence of legal pluralism or private ordering is why private actors issue norms? The paper begins by looking at a variety of reasons why private actors produce norms and discusses in detail the concepts of the hierarchy of norms and their legal validity. The paper points out the fact that public space faced crises of state institutions regarding separation of powers, parliamentary time, terrorism and secession. These crises drawn all the attention of public space and affect its normative reactivity in the sense of regulating new activities, social practices. This legal ordering sometimes produces ineffective and unintelligible norms. There is no doubt that a poorly design law and ineffective access to the law can affect economic activities. The emergence of private norms can be explained in two different ways. It could be argued that, confront to an inadequacy law, private actors decide to subject their activities to non-state law. Produce norms is therefore a unique opportunity to private actors to free themselves from the constraints of the legal insecurity since the inadequacy or lack of state law expose them to additional transaction costs. This paper doesn’t or never claimed complete autonomy from legal system. I shall conclude that far to compete with legal space, private ordering help to discipline private actors and to organize new activities. The paper tries to explain why Mobile Network Operators (MNO) produce mobile money norms and intends to demonstrate that an increasing number of mobile money rules issued by GSMA, and MNO can be found within a corpus of rules of legal orders. We will try to identify, among layers of legal corpus rules, legal norms which originally come from private ordering. One could observe that mobile money private norms had been recognized by public actors through legal transplants. Other question not always considered in the debate, regards the existence of private norms which had not been incorporated to the contents of positive law. The importance of private norms in the regulation of mobile money system is undeniable. The mobile money private norms are an important source of public legislation, they structure mobile money operators’ agreement. It is important to be aware of their existence of private norms which has not be incorporated on state legal orders. This paper also outlines the impact of technology, more specifically of mobile money on the financial landscape and above all, the access of non-banking players MNOs in the financial landscape. By its characteristics, mobile money is on the way to change landscape of financial inclusion for unbanked countries. A financial market has born or raised around mobile money and now, Bank and other financial institutions must compete with MNOs, owners of the Unstructured supplementary service Data: which is a critical platform required to provide mobile financial services and to enable mobile financial service operators to access potential mobile money clients or to send responses to clients and confirm transactions. This relatively new roles for MNOs generate competition issues particularly in the case where one MNO in dominant position on the voice market also plays an active role in providing mobile money services or mobile financial services. Finally, this paper aims to describe and explain the various normative interaction between a private ordering and a state order especially regarding pure theory of law. To do so, we study a high number of sector (lex mercatoria) where we can verify normative interaction between legal norms and private norms. We therefore manage to theorize this normative interaction.

Kurumsal sosyal sorumluluk her ne kadar son yıllarda Türk iş dünyasının radarına girmiş olsa da, şirketler hukukunun doğuşundan beri var olan hem bir tartışma konusu hem de bir temennidir. İşbu tez kapsamında, üzerinde uzlaşmaya varılmış bir tanımı bulunmayan kurumsal sosyal sorumluk kavramının, yıllardır bağlayıcı olmayan hukuk enstrümanları ile düzenlenmesinin bir adım ilerisine geçmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Bu adımın da, kavramın şirketler hukuku mevzuatı çerçevesinde bağlayıcı hukuk kuralı hâline getirilmesi ile mümkün olacağı savunulmaktadır. Araştırma metodolojisinde, yürürlükte olan mevzuat hükümleri analizine yoğunlaşılmış olmasının yanı sıra kavramın tarihsel gelişimi gereği bağlayıcı olmayan hukuk (soft law) düzenlemelerine de yer verilmiştir. Şirketlerin pay sahibi dışında; işçiler, alacaklılar, çevre ve toplum gibi diğer menfaat sahiplerinin de çıkarlarını göz önünde bulunduracak şekilde varlığını devam ettirmesinin hâlihazırdaki Türk hukuk mevzuatı ve özellikle de Türk Ticaret Kanunu hükümleri kapsamında mümkün olmadığı görülmektedir. Bu doğrultuda şirketin kâr elde etme amacının yumuşatılması, diğer menfaat sahiplerinin şirket içindeki konumlarının güçlendirilmesi, yönetim kurulu yapısının değiştirilmesi ve yönetim kurulu üyelerinin özen ve bağlılık yükümlülüklerinin kapsamının yeniden düzenlenmesi ile kurumsal sosyal sorumluluğun şirketler hukuku kapsamında temellendirilebileceği öne sürülmektedir. Although corporate social responsibility has entered the radar of Turkish business world in recent years, it is both a topic of discussion and a wish that has existed since the birth of corporate law. Within the scope of this thesis, it is aimed to go one step further than mentioning the concept of corporate social responsibility, which has no agreed definition, in only non-binding legal instruments for years. It is argued that this step will be possible by making the concept a binding legal rule within the framework of company law legislation. In the research methodology, besides focusing on the analysis of the legislation provisions in force, non-binding law (soft law) regulations due to the historical development of the concept are also included. Within the scope of the current Turkish legislation, especially the provisions of the Turkish Commercial Code, it is seen that it is not possible for companies to continue their existence in a way that takes into account the interests of other stakeholders such as workers, creditors, environment and society other than the shareholders. In this direction, it is claimed that corporate social responsibility can be grounded within the scope of company law by, inter alia, softening the company's aim of making profit, strengthening the positions of other stakeholders within the company, changing the structure of the Board of Directors and reorganizing the scope of Board of Directors' duty of care.

Depuis 1977, et l'entrée dans la législation française de l'éducation à l'environnement par voie de circulaire, ce sujet n’a cessé de se diffuser dans l’ensemble du droit. Cette expansion prend forme à tous les échelons de la hiérarchie des normes en inscrivant l’éducation à l’environnement aussi bien dans la loi qu’au niveau constitutionnel. L’identification des conditions juridiques de la reconnaissance de l’éducation à l’environnement conduit à souligner la capacité du système juridique à se saisir de nouveaux sujets. Néanmoins l’appréhension de ce sujet complexe et multidimensionnel pose des difficultés. D’une part, la portée des règles juridiques reconnaissant l’éducation à l’environnement est faible et s’apparente à de simples déclarations d’intention. D’autre part, l’utilisation de ces règles par ses destinataires reste faible voire inexistante, ce qui interroge sur la légitimité d’une telle introduction dans le droit. En réaction à ce constat, la thèse propose de démontrer que l’éducation à l’environnement joue un rôle majeur dans l’atteinte des objectifs de protection de l’environnement, mais également dans l’effectivité du droit de l’environnement. Ainsi, l’accumulation de règles relatives à cet objet a conduit à édifier un socle juridique solide en faveur de son expansion. L’enjeu de cette recherche est donc double. Elle ambitionne d'abord de clarifier la valeur juridique des textes relatifs à l’éducation à l’environnement en soulignant notamment les rapports d’implication qu’elle entretient avec les autres droits. Elle vise ensuite à donner un cadre juridique stable à un impératif essentiel pour la protection de l’environnement. Since 1977, when environmental education was included in French legislation by means of a circular, the subject has continued to spread throughout the law. This expansion is taking shape at all levels of the hierarchy of norms, with environmental education being enshrined in law as well as in the constitution. The identification of the legal conditions for the recognition of environmental education underlines the capacity of the legal system to take on newsubjects. Nevertheless, the apprehension of this complex and multidimensional subject poses difficulties. On the one hand, the scope of the legal rules recognising environmental education is weak and resembles a simple declaration of intent. On the other hand, the use of these rules by their recipients remains weak or even non-existent, which questions the legitimacy of such an introduction in the law. In reaction to this observation, the thesis proposes to demonstrate that environmental education plays a major role in achieving the objectives of environmental protection, but also in the effectiveness of environmental law. Thus, the accumulation of relative rules on this subject has led to the building of a solid legal foundation for its expansion. The challenge of this research is therefore twofold. Initially, it aims to clarify the legal value of the texts relating to environmental education by underlining, in particular, therelationships of implication that it has with other rights. In addition, it aims to provide a stable legal framework for an essential requirement for environmental protection.