Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Dans le cadre de cette étude, nous avons constaté que l’immunité d’exécution consacrée à l’article 30 de l’Acte uniforme portant procédures simplifiées de recouvrement des créances et de voies d’exécution par le législateur de l’OHADA est fondée sur la conception volontariste de l’intérêt général.  Cette conception est aux antipodes ou en opposition avec la protection des droits de l’homme et plus précisément du Droit d’accès à la justice des créanciers des personnes morales de Droit public. En effet, la conception volontariste de l’intérêt général est celle qui privilégie l’intérêt des personnes publiques au nom des activités de nature à satisfaire toute la collectivité. Cette conception estime que l’on ne peut pas sacrifier l’intérêt de toute la communauté au détriment de l’intérêt des privés ou des particuliers étant donné que ces particuliers ne visent que leurs intérêts égoïstes. Pour nous, cette conception volontariste est archaïque ou dépassée au regard de l’évolution du Droit né des interactions entre les personnes publiques et les personnes privées. Elle doit au regard de cette évolution céder la place à la conception utilitariste de l’intérêt général dans la mesure où cette dernière met un équilibre entre l’intérêt public et l’intérêt des particuliers. Cette conception démontre qu’en réalité, la réalisation de l’intérêt général est aussi tributaire des activités des particuliers qui participent à cette réalisation. Pour protéger les créanciers des personnes publiques, nous avons estimé qu’il faille redéfinir ou revisiter l’article 30 de l’Acte uniforme susmentionné pour que l’on ne tienne pas compte de l’immunité d’exécution des personnes publiques pour les actes de nature privée qu’elles exercent. Il y a par exemple les Etats membres de l’OHADA qui sont des associés dans leurs anciennes entreprises publiques transformées aujourd’hui en sociétés commerciales. Dans ces genres des cas, il est mal aisé d’octroyer l’immunité à ces personnes publiques et sacrifier les particuliers dans un différend qui les opposent. A défaut de cette révision, nous avons proposé à la Cour commune de justice et d’arbitrage de l’OHADA de faire recours aux différentes méthodes protectrices des droits de l’homme utilisées par ses homologues de l’UEMOA, de la CEMAC et de la CAE qui, du reste rejettent avec force cette immunité d’exécution des personnes publiques sans tenir compte d’un quelconque statut desdites personnes.

Du point de vue du droit international, le juge interne, en tant qu’organe de l’État, est tenu au respect des jugements internationaux qui imposent une obligation d’exécution à la charge de l’État du for. À partir de l’observation d’une tendance de plus en plus répandue de la part des tribunaux nationaux à refuser l’exécution des jugements internationaux invoqués devant eux, cette thèse a pour but d’interroger la pratique étatique ancienne et récente relative à l’exécution de jugements internationaux, tant interétatiques que transnationaux, afin d’identifier les principaux obstacles à la réalisation du jugement international par les juges internes. En particulier, dans le silence tant de l’engagement international vis-à-vis de la juridiction internationale que de l’ordre juridique étatique sur les modalités d’exécution du jugement par le juge interne, l’existence d’une obligation qui s’imposerait à lui est soumise à un certain nombre de contraintes. L’une de ces contraintes est objective et découle de la séparation formelle des systèmes : le jugement international doit être revêtu d’une autorité interne afin qu’il puisse être exécuté. Les autres contraintes sont relatives, créés par le juge lui-même et dépendant de facteurs contingents. Bien que ces contraintes fassent obstacles à l’exécution du jugement par le juge interne à son propre niveau, i.e. l’ordre juridique étatique, elles ont fatalement des conséquences dans l’ordre juridique international. D’une part, l’inexécution du jugement qui découle de leur invocation conduit à l’engagement de la responsabilité de l’État dans l’ordre international, de l’autre, elle peut remettre en question le droit international positif et contribuer à son évolution. From the international law perspective, international judgments are binding οn the State and in turn, the domestic judges, as organs of the State, have an obligation to enforce them. However, there is an increasingly widespread tendency of domestic courts resisting to enforce international judgments invoked before them. This thesis aims to investigate the old and recent state practice relating to the enforcement of international judgments, both interstate and transnational to identify the main obstacles to their enforcement by domestic courts. In the silence of both the international commitment to the international jurisdiction and the domestic legal order on the means of enforcement, the domestic judge enforcement is submitted to a number of conditions. One of these conditions is objective, as it stems from the formal separation of the systems: the international judgment can be executed in the domestic legal order only when it is invested with an internal authority. The other conditions are subjective, created by the judge himself and dependent on contingent factors. Although these conditions only concern the execution of the judgment by the domestic judge at its own level, i.e. the municipal legal order, they inevitably have consequences in the international legal order. On the one hand, the inexecution resulting from their invocation by the domestic judge can lead to the engagement of the international responsibility of the State, on the other hand, it can challenge the international law and contribute to its evolution.

A presente tese discorre acerca da fraude à execução, especialmente a forma como sua configuração atual, bem como sua dicotomia perante a fraude contra credores, afeta litigantes e operadores do mercado. Partindo de uma visão instrumentalista e utilizando de ferramentas específicas da análise econômica do direito, procurou-se analisar as principais consequências das interpretações correntes acerca do instituto, especialmente no que tange aos impactos relacionados à existência paralela de instituto análogo (fraude contra credores). Para tanto, no Capítulo 2 foram elucidados alguns dos conceitos da análise econômica que vieram a ser empregados neste estudo para a revisão de determinadas conclusões da doutrina majoritária, incluindo externalidades, ameaça crível, assimetria informacional e custos de transação. No Capítulo 3 procurou-se abordar o tema da responsabilidade patrimonial à luz da análise econômica do direito, concluindo pela excepcionalidade da responsabilidade patrimonial secundária. No Capítulo 4, a dicotomia entre as fraudes (à execução e contra credores) é analisada em seus principais aspectos, tais como origens, formas de impugnação e efeitos de decretos de fraude, levando à sugestão de sua reaproximação dogmática e superação da tradicional dicotomia, em função de diferentes aspectos de ambos os institutos, inclusive à luz de alterações recentes da legislação processual. No Capítulo 5, é apresentada proposta de lege ferenda, para aprimoramento do instituto e revisão de seus contornos com base nas análises realizadas neste trabalho. This essay discusses fraud of execution, especially the way in which its current configuration, as well as its dichotomy in the face of fraud against creditors, affects litigants and the market. Starting from an instrumentalist view and using specific tools of Law and Economics, we tried to analyze the main consequences of the current interpretations about the institute, especially with regard to the impacts related to the parallel existence of an analogous institute (fraud against creditors). In order to do so, in Chapter 2 some of the concepts of economic analysis that started to be used in this study were elucidated to review certain conclusions of the majority doctrine, including externalities, credible threat, information asymmetry and transaction costs. In Chapter 3, we tried to approach the issue of patrimonial liability in the light of Law and Economics, concluding that secondary patrimonial responsibility is exceptional. In Chapter 4, the dichotomy between fraud (of execution and against creditors) is analyzed in its main aspects, such as origins, forms of recognition and effects of fraud decrees, leading to the suggestion of its dogmatic rapprochement and overcoming of the traditional dichotomy, due to different aspects of both institutes, including in light of recent changes in procedural legislation. In Chapter 5, a proposal lege ferenda is presented, for the improvement of the institute and revision of its contours based on the analyzes carried out in this work.

OHADA is amongst an international organization which consists of arbitral tribunal within some regions in Africa in handling international investment and commercial disputes. Henceforth, the purpose of this study is to examine the effectivity of the enforcement of arbitral awards under the perspectives of OHADA arbitration rules. The study axed through qualitative approach by interpreting legal rules, analyzing cases and commenting the weakness of the charter in terms of enforcement and recognition of arbitral awards. The decision of OHADA arbitral tribunal shall contain intrinsically legal binding to member countries, however it leads problematics as the enforcement and recognition rules may be different in every country involved. Hence, the study interpreted the legal rules concerning enforcement and recognition of arbitral awards and the effectiveness of the rules. In addition it exerted also the challenges and significant recommendation for improving arbitration rules relating to enforcement of the awards. It is found that the weakness of the arbitral awards locates on refusal of concerned State to enforce the awards under the domestic law due to conflict of interest.

This study traces the evolution of the CCJA case law on the principle of exemption from enforcement for public companies. It aims in particular to highlight the direction in which this case law is moving. It appears that the CCJA has so far not succeeded in elaborating its own definition of the concept of 'public companies'; yet it is there that, in our view, the mystery of the immunity from execution that it has long recognized to these companies hides; even when they were incorporated in the form of a corporation. However, over time, the Court has rightly reversed its previous decisions by moving from an extensive to a restrictive interpretation of exemption from enforcement. In any case, the involvement of the lawmaker is more than welcome in order to put an end to the situation of inequality, which has existed for a long time in terms of enforcement under OHADA law, between corporations having the State or its branches (public companies) as shareholders and those whose shareholders have no State participation.

Conservative foreclosures are those where measures are applied both as a precaution and as a means of pressure against the debtor. To this end, OHADA has therefore provided that in voluntary execution, any creator can, whatever the nature of his debt, force his defaulting debtor to perform his obligations to his follow-up or a precautionary measure to ensure the safeguard of his rights. This is the case for remunerations that can be entered following the prior conciliation procedure and not a direct entry. Les saisies conservatoires sont donc des mesures à la fois de précaution et à la fois des moyens de pression contre le débiteur. A cet effet, le législateur OHADA a donc prévu qu’à défaut d'exécution volontaire, tout créancier peut, quelle que soit la nature de sa créance, contraindre son débiteur défaillant à exécuter ses obligations à son égard ou pratiquer une mesure conservatoire pour assurer la sauvegarde de ses droits. C’est le cas des rémunérations qui peuvent être saisies suivant la procédure préalable de conciliation et non d’une saisie directe.

Businessmen have a choice in the resolution of disputes, they may elect litigation or submit to arbitration. Delays, outrageous cost and undue technicalities associated with courts, makes commercial arbitration the preferred mode of settlement in the business world. However, the recalcitrance of an award-debtor to comply with the terms of the award necessitates the intervention of the courts. Nigeria has provisions for enforcement of foreign arbitral awards within her legal system. However, reliance on courts for enforcing foreign awards frequently frustrates the gains initially made by arbitration. Enforcement of arbitral awards via the courts has numerous legal challenges. This study is therefore aimed at analysing the challenges facing enforcement of foreign awards in Nigeria. The objectives of the study were to: (i) analyse the impact of extant legal regimes on the recognition and enforcement of foreign awards in Nigeria; (ii) examine the effects of the concepts of arbitrability and public policy exceptions on the enforcement of awards in Nigeria; (iii) examine the challenges inherent in judicial review on the enforcement of foreign awards in Nigeria; and (iv) examine the adequacy of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act 1988 (ACA 1988) in the recognition and enforcement of Islamic commercial arbitral awards. The study employed doctrinal methodology of legal research where primary and secondary of legal materials were subjected to descriptive and content analysis. The primary sources used were legislations, regulations, treaties, conventions and case laws, while secondary sources used were texts books, journals, internet materials, conferences and seminars papers. The findings of the study were that: i. the provisions of the laws regulating enforcement of foreign arbitral awards in Nigeria, particularly, Sections 51 and 54 of ACA 1988 have inherent and procedural defects, thus preventing the smooth enforcement of the award; ii. the narrow interpretation by the Nigerian courts on ‘arbitrability’ based on Sections 54 and 57 of ACA 1988 which restricts disputes to contractual and commercial disputes only, prevents the enforcement of foreign awards from jurisdictions with liberal interpretation. iii. the amorphous nature of the scope of public policy creates a challenge for the courts in Nigeria in determining whether a foreign award violates the country’s public policy or not; iv. the powers of the courts to set aside foreign awards based on grounds contained in Sections 29, 30 and 48 ACA 1988 are open-ended and allow the courts to examine the merit of the disputes rather than limit themselves to the validity of the award for enforcement; v. the provisions of ACA 1988 on enforcement of foreign arbitral awards do not consider the idiosyncrasies of awards from Islamic law jurisdictions, despite growing investors’ interests in Islamic commercial transactions. The study concluded that it is obvious that the various legal challenges identified showed that the existing legal frameworks on enforcement of foreign arbitral award in Nigeria are weak and ineffective. The study therefore recommended that the Nigerian arbitral laws in particular, the provisions on enforcement of arbitral awards under ACA 1988 should be amended.

The problem statement of this thesis is ascertaining the legal nature of debt securities in furtherance of a consistent and coherent legal description of the South African positive law as it relates to this class of instruments. It focuses on four core issues: the legal history, legal nature, classification, and current legal issues relating to debt securities. Historical and analytic-systemic approaches to the problem statement make up Part 1 of the study. The historical approach shows an emergent commoditisation of debt, which is an important phenomenon in the analysis of securities law. It further shows a great deal of English influence in the development of the South African legal environment, most notably in terms of company law (as the primary driver of securities law) and the financial marketplace, its institutions and its regulation. Also highlighted is a notable scarcity of debt securities relative to equities, which materially impacted legislative developments. Finally, it points to an increase in the legal importance of the “securities” concept as a legal term to describe and govern debt and equity securities. Thereafter the analytic-systemic approach is used to identify a set of private law-rooted first principles applicable to South African registered securities, and herefore to debt securities as well. It posits that these securities should be understood conceptually as comprised two interdependent but functionally separate legal objects, rather than in terms of two different kinds of ownership (i.e. beneficial and registered). The first object is the "security instrument”, a locus for (holdership of) the incidents that flow from the entitlement of determination (beskikkingsbevoegdheid) over the underlying complex of rights and competencies of registered securities. These can be understood as incidents of execution. The second is the "security asset”, a locus for (holdership of) the incidents that flow from the entitlement of enjoyment (genotsbevoegdheid) over that underlying complex, and corresponds with the proprietary, patrimonial dimension of securities. These can be understood as incidents of enjoyment. This construction enables a more coherent understanding of the sui generis relationship of agency between beneficial owner and her nominee, as well as of the dynamics of ownership and quasi-possessio. These insights are then applied to the uncertificated environment, addressing a number of difficult and uncertain problems within the system that enables uncertificated securities and their holdership. Finally the particularly difficult issue of how to classify (and therefore identify) debt securities is dealt with. Here it is concluded that a typological approach is the only viable methodology to deal with this problem, and a number of necessary and thereafter possible classificatory indicia are outlined for this purpose. The functional-policy approach makes up Part 2 of the study. It is a policy-aware application of the theoretical framework developed to a select number of themes and legal issues of the current environment. Principally it shows that the reconceptualisation of registered securities has explanatory and problem-solving value, specifically relating to transfer, the granting of limited real interests, good faith acquisition, and the protection of holdership of certificated and uncertificated securities.

La thèse est une étude de droit international portant sur le droit français des saisies de comptes bancaires en matière civile et commerciale. Elle définit le principe de territorialité du droit (au sens subjectiviste, normativiste et savignien). Elle distingue l’aspect procédural de la saisie d’un compte bancaire (la signification) de ses aspects substantiels (injonction de communiquer des données, indisponibilité et/ou transfert du solde du compte bancaire). Par observation du droit positif, elle soutient qu’en chacun de ces aspects, ladite saisie commande l’application de principes (subjectivistes) de territorialité distincts (territorialité des voies d’exécution, territorialité des traitements de données, territorialité des opérations de paiement) ; que seule l’analyse différenciée de ces principes permet de comprendre le régime synthétique des saisies des comptes bancaires en droit international. Cette approche analytique est riche d’enseignements. D’un point de vue pratique, elle permet de dégager des conditions potentielles d’invalidité et/ou d’illégitimité des saisies françaises de comptes bancaires étrangers. Par ailleurs, elle contribue à l’étude du régime international : des significations réelles faites à, et des transferts de données réalisés au sein d’une, personne morale ; du statut réel du compte bancaire. D’un point de vue théorique, elle révèle l’existence de conflits hétérogènes de lois et suggère une méthode pour leur résolution ; elle exige que l’approche subjectiviste du droit international, la lecture personnaliste du compte bancaire et des opérations de paiement, et l’analyse fonctionnelle de la monnaie, soient présentées et développées.

Le domaine transfrontalier est encore trop souvent synonyme d’irrécouvrabilité pour les créanciers. Traditionnellement, le recouvrement d’une dette se scinde en préparation de l’exécution forcée puis en son exécution. La préparation de l’exécution est caractérisée par la sauvegarde des droits, soit la réalisation de mesure conservatoire ou l’obtention d’un titre dont la reconnaissance transfrontalière pourra concrétiser la réalisation de l’exécution forcée. L’efficacité des mécanismes européens est conditionnée par le respect des droits fondamentaux de procédure face aux barrières usuelles de la distance (délai, langue, accès aux renseignements, multiplicité des règles procédurales etc.). Aujourd’hui, la procédure historique d’exequatur est partiellement remplacée sur le territoire de l’Union européenne, par des mécanismes de recouvrement d’effet direct notamment en matière civile et commerciale. Toutefois, l’exécution forcée européenne demeure assujettie au principe de la territorialité. La mise en place d’une mesure européenne demeure un sujet d’actualité, dont la réalisation concrète permettrait sûrement de solutionner cette problématique (pour partie). Cross-border debt recovery is still too often synonymous with no payment for creditors. Traditionally, debt collection has been divided into preparation for enforcement and execution. The former is characterized by the safeguarding of rights, which means by carrying out of a protective measure or by the necessity of obtaining a cross-border debt acknowledgement which may make the forced execution reality. The effectiveness of European mechanisms is limited by the respect of fundamental procedural rights in the face of the usual distance barriers (deadline, language, access to information, multiplicity of procedural rules, etc.). Today, the historic exequatur procedure is partially replaced in the European Union by direct effect recovery mechanisms, particularly in civil and commercial matters. However, European forced execution remains a matter dealt with under the principle of territoriality. The implementation of a European measure remains a topical issue, while its concrete implementation would surely (partly) solve this problem.

Les sûretés judiciaires OHADA permettent au créancier d’acquérir une protection conservatoire grâce à une procédure d’urgence connue sous le nom d’ordonnance sur requête. L’efficacité de cet instrument procédural à l’égard du créancier repose sur plusieurs aspects. Dans le but de conférer une protection juridictionnelle immédiate, l’ordonnance sur requête permet au créancier d’inscrire sa sûreté sur les biens du débiteur à son insu. Cet effet de surprise à l’égard du débiteur est renforcé par une certaine célérité dans l’exécution de la décision du juge qui, en facilitant la tâche au créancier, lui imposera éventuellement certaines conditions afin de garantir le caractère légitime de sa revendication. Judicial securities OHADA make it possible to the creditor to acquire a precautionary protection thanks to an emergency procedure known as order of request. The effectiveness of this procedural instrument, with regards to the creditor, based on several aspects. With an aim of conferring an immediate jurisdictional protection, the ordinance on request makes it possible to the creditor to register his security on the debtor's property without his knowledge. This effect of surprise with regards to the debtor is reinforced by a certain celerity in the execution of the decision of the judge who, by facilitating the task with the creditor, will impose possibly certain conditions to him in order to guarantee the legitimate character of his claim.

The vast number of commercial transactions that take place daily in the modern business world will be inconceivable without negotiable instruments like cheques. This is the reason why the recovery of debts inherent in cheques without cover has been given the attention it deserves within the CEMAC Region under the OHADA Uniform Act on Business Law. The OHADA Uniform Act on Simplified Recovery Procedure and Enforcement Measures has instituted a procedure in the member states of the OHADA zone to recover debts of a company when it eventually goes bankrupt or when it winds up. It should however be understood that all the member states of CEMAC are OHADA signatories. This ipso facto means that Cameroon being a member of CEMAC, with its bi jural nature, where the Common Law and Civil law legal systems operates in the Former West Cameroon and Former East Cameroon respectively, both parts of the country are bound to implement the OHADA Uniform Act in their various jurisdictions. The Uniform Act on Simplified Recovery Procedures and Enforcement Measures was issued on the 10th of April 1998. Like the Uniform Act on Securities, this Act overlaps the bound of pure business law in that it effects a general reform of civil procedure in relation to recovery and enforcement. The reform was indispensable of the OHADA Member States, only Mali had, in 1994, put in place a modern system that was suited to present day economic and social conditions. Otherwise, the relevant legislation dated, at best from the 1970s and in several cases from colonial times. The OHADA Uniform Act governs commercial companies and Economic Interest groups. Since banks are commercial companies governed under Public Limited Companies S. As , they are equally governed by the OHADA Uniform Act. Thus, this paper questions the potentials of the OHADA Simplified Recovery Procedure and Enforcement Measures in relation to the special mechanisms for the Recovery of Debts inherent in cheques without cover in Cameroon.

Malgré l’existence, dans le Code civil français, d’une règle selon laquelle les obligations de faire ou de ne pas faire, en cas d’inexécution, ne donnent lieu qu’à des dommages-intérêts (art. 1142), le juge français ordonne de plus en plus souvent au débiteur d’exécuter en nature ses obligations, ou, plus généralement, prononce souvent, à l’égard des parties à un procès ou des tiers, des injonctions leur imposant un comportement déterminé. Grâce au mécanisme de l’astreinte, qui joue le rôle d’un moyen de contrainte indirecte, mais aussi en prescrivant des mesures que des tiers peuvent exécuter si leur débiteur normal n’y consent pas, le juge renforce à la fois l’efficacité de ses décisions et l’autorité de ses interventions. Cette évolution intéresse les matières aussi diverses que le droit des obligations (art. 1143 et 1144 du Code civil), le droit du travail, la protection de la vie privée (art. 9 du Code civil), l’obtention judiciaire de preuves (nouveau Code de procédure civile). Ces injonctions de faire sont très souvent prononcées par un juge statuant rapidement, le « juge de la mise en état », le juge des référés, le tribunal d’instance. Cependant, les tribunaux ne prononcent de telles injonctions que s’ils ont la conviction qu’elles peuvent être exécutées, et si elles ne portent pas gravement atteinte à la liberté individuelle ou à la séparation des pouvoirs (judiciaire et administratif). Un équilibre délicat est donc recherché entre ces intérêts contradictoires. De même, le juge n’exercera pas son imperium sur le territoire d’États étrangers, tandis qu’à l’inverse certains commandements d’autorités étrangères ne pourront être exécutés en France. The French Civil Code slates that the non-performance o f obligations to do or not to do gives rise only to damages (s. 1142). However, there is a growing tendency among French judges to order specific performance by the debtor, or, more generally, to issue, against the parties to a trial or even third parties, injunctions which impose upon them a given behavior.

L’extinction partielle des dettes occupe, encore aujourd’hui, une place discrète dans le Code civil. Elle pourrait presque être reléguée à un simple accident de parcours dans la vie de l’obligation. L’article 1342-4 nouveau du Code civil – vestige de l’article 1244 antérieur à l’ordonnance – en donne une illustration particulièrement frappante en posant comme principe que le créancier peut purement et simplement refuser un paiement partiel. Toutefois, les cas de survenance de l’extinction partielle se multiplient en jurisprudence et en pratique. Plus encore, la loi pose de plus en plus d’exceptions ponctuelles à l’article 1342-4, notamment par les mesures de grâce ou les règles régissant les effets de commerce en droit des affaires. L’intérêt du sujet part de ce postulat : il existe une discordance entre la vision classique de l’extinction partielle et son intérêt actuel renouvelé par une société de l’endettement. Définie comme la disparition non rétroactive d’un quantum de l’obligation pour en laisser subsister une autre partie, l’extinction partielle repose paradoxalement sur la satisfaction du créancier. La subsistance d’un quantum de l’obligation différencie, en effet, extinction partielle et extinction totale : le créancier demeure dans l’attente d’une partie de la dette. Le lien de droit demeure par l’expectative d’un désintéressement futur. La satisfaction du créancier est donc toute à la fois immédiate et projetée. Partial extinction of debts still occupies a discreet place in the French civil Code. It could almost be relegated to a transient difficulty. The new article 1342-4 of the civil Code – old article 1244 prior to the new legislation of 2016 - provides a striking illustration of this, as a principle that the creditor may simply refuse partial payment. However, cases of partial extinction are multiplying in case law and practice. More importantly, the law increasingly makes specific exceptions to 1342-4, including through grace measures or rules governing business effects. The interest of the subject is based on this assumption: there is a discrepancy between the classic view of partial extinction and its current interest renewed by our society of debts. Defined as the non-retroactive disappearance of a quantum of the obligation to allow another part to remain, the partial termination is paradoxically based on the satisfaction of the creditor. The subsistence of a quantum of the obligation differentiates, in fact, partial extinction and total extinction: the creditor remains awaiting part of the debt.