Bibliographie sélective OHADA

L'impressionnante évolution de l'industrie de la gestion au cours de ces quinze dernières années, notamment par l'utilisation des techniques de gestion ct de financements novatrices ainsi que le recours à des produits structurés de plus en plus complexes, a conduit l'industrie des d'OPCVM à vivre de profondes mutations. En effet, le caractère puhlic de l'épargne collective et le rôle stratégique que jouent les OPCVM en matière de sa canalisation vers le secteur productif, ont conduit le législateur à confier le contrôle de ces organismes à divers organes. L'efficacité, la productivité et la transparence sont de nos jours les maîtres mots dans les milieux financiers. Tous les opérateurs se trouvent dans l'obligation de mettre en œuvre des règles plus pertinentes et plus rigoureuses pour gagner cette bataille. L'étude du contrôle des OPCVM, revient à occulter l'un des principes essentiels des marchés financiers : la nécessité de sécurité et de confiance. En effet, les investisseurs ne s'engageront dans des placements financiers, que si les produits proposés offrent des garanties suffisantes. Cette confiance peut être établie par le contrôle exercé sur ces derniers, ce contrôle est réglementaire ou légale, il s'agit du commissaire aux comptes, en tant qu'organe classique des sociétés, le contrôle interne comme atout des OPCVM, le dépositaire comme organe original de ces derniers et enfin l'organe clef de la protection des marchés financiers qui est l'autorité de tutelle. The impressive evolution of industry management over these past fifteen years, including by the use of the techniques for managing and funding innovative and the use of more structured products increasingly complex, has led the industry and of UClTS to live profound changes. Indeed, the public nature of the collective savings and the strategic role of UCITS in the pipe to the productive sector, led the legislature to entrust the control of these agencies in various organs. Efficiency, productivity and transparency are the watchwords of our days in the financial community. All operators are obliged to implement the more relevant and more stringent rules to win this battle. The study of the control of the UCITS, returned to obscure one of the fundamental principles of the financial markets : the need for security and confidence. Indeed, investors commit in financial investments, that if the proposed products offer sufficient guarantees. This trust can be established by the control exercised over thcse last, this control is regulatory or legal, is the Commissioner of accounts, just as classical organ of the companies, the internal control as UCITS asset, the depositary as original body of the latter and finally the body key to the protection of the financial markets is the supervisory authority.

Kurumların birleşme, bölünme, kısmi bölünme ve hisse değişimi yoluyla yeniden yapılandırılma işlemleri başta ticaret hukuku olmak üzere, rekabet hukuku, sermaye piyasası hukuku ve vergi hukuku gibi birçok hukuk dalını ilgilendiren çok disiplinli bir alandır. Ticaret hukuku, genel olarak yeniden yapılandırma işlemlerinde şirket alacaklarının ve ortaklarının haklarının korunmasını amaçlamaktayken, vergi hukuku söz konusu işlemler sonucunda ortaya çıkan kâr ile ilgilenmektedir. Yeniden yapılanma işlemlerin vergisel maliyeti, bunların önündeki en önemli engeli teşkil etmektedir. Bu sebeple, tüm hukuk sistemlerinde vergisel açıdan tarafsızlığı sağlayıcı hükümler yer almaktadır.Çalışmamızda, özellikle, üye devletler arasındaki ekonomik ilişkilerin artırılarak, ekonomik gelişmenin ve refahın sağlanması yoluyla güçlü bir topluluk yaratma amacı taşıyan Avrupa Birliği Hukuku ve Türk Hukukunda yeniden yapılandırma işlemlerinin vergisel boyutu incelenmiştir. Avrupa Birliği Mevzuatına uyum sağlama çalışmaları çerçevesinde dolaysız vergiler alanında yapılması gereken düzenlemelerden birisi de vergi kanunlarında şirketlerin bölünmesini ve hisse değişimini kolaylaştırıcı, kalıcı mahiyette hükümler getirmek olmuştur. Dolayısıyla Avrupa Birliği Birleşme mevzuatı, tam üyelik sürecindeki ülkemiz açısından önem arz etmektedir.Çalışmamızın birinci bölümünde birleşme, bölünme, kısmi bölünme ve hisse değişimi müesseselerinin kavramsal esasları, Kurumlar Vergisi Kanunu, Türk Ticaret Kanunu ve Yeni Türk Ticaret Kanunu ile ilgili Avrupa Birliği mevzuatı çerçevesinde ortaya konulmaya çalışılacaktır. İkinci bölümde, birleşme, bölünme, kısmi bölünme, aktif transferi ve hisse değişimine ilişkin temel Avrupa Birliği düzenlemesi olan Birleşme Direktifi, Avrupa Birliği Adalet Divanı kararları çerçevesinde incelenecektir. Son bölümde ise Türk vergi mevzuatındaki, birleşme, bölünme ve hisse değişimine ilişkin hükümler tereddütlü noktalara da değinilmek suretiyle ele alınacaktır. Sonuç bölümünde birleşme, bölünme, kısmi bölünme ve hisse değişimi müesseselerine ilişkin değerlendirmelerimize yer verilmiştir. Transactions concerning the restructuring of companies through mergers, divisions, partial divisions and exchanges of shares relate to a multi disciplinary domain, including commercial law, competition law, capital markets law and tax law. While commercial law generally aims at the protection of rights of company's creditors and shareholders, tax law is mostly interested with the profit generated through these transactions. The tax cost of restructuring transactions, constitutes the main obstacle for those. For this reason, all legal systems include provisions providing tax neutrality regarding these transactions.In this study, we have analysed the tax law dimension of restructuring transactions especially in Turkish Law and Law of European Union which aims at the creation of a strong community through the development of economic relations between member states. Within the context of harmonisation to the European Union Legislation, one of the necessary regulations concerning direct taxes has been the enactment of tax law provisions enabling the division of companies and exchanges of shares thereof. Consequently, EU Merger Legislation is of utmost importance for Turkey as a candidate state.The first chapter of this study presents the conceptual basis of the transactions in question within the context of Corporate Tax Law, Commercial Law and the New Commercial Law and EU Legislation. The second chapter examines the Merger Directive within the framework of jurisprudences of European Court of Justice. The last chapter deals with problematic issues in Turkish Tax and Commercial laws. We conclude by presenting our evaluations based on previous chapters.

This thesis analyzes the concept of corporate residence, with particular reference to the law in the UK and Canada. It explores why corporate residence is relevant in tax policy, how corporate residence is understood in law, and how revenue authorities respond to the use and alleged 'abuse' of residence rules. Part I argues that the residence of taxpayers generally (individual or corporate) remains a relevant factor in international tax design, that taxation of corporations on the basis of residence has some justification, but that there is a disjunction between meaningful residence-based taxation and current definitions of corporate residence in domestic law and tax treaties. The formulations of residence based on incorporation, central management and control, and place of effective management, particularly as applied to multinational enterprises, are considered and are found to be deficient. Part II critically analyzes the major policy responses of the UK and Canadian governments to the exploitation of corporate residence. It argues that key legislative and administrative responses to international tax avoidance activities, for both outbound and inbound investment, are purportedly based on the acceptance of formal corporate residence yet undermine that concept in an effort to impose tax or refuse treaty relief based on where economic interests actually exist. The responses considered are the application of controlled foreign companies legislation to offshore subsidiaries, the invocation of treaty anti-abuse rules with respect to offshore intermediaries, and the use of overarching general anti-avoidance measures to challenge varied structures that rely on offshore entities. These haphazard anti-avoidance rules are overlaid with revenue authorities' indignation at the motivations that underlie many corporate relocations. It is argued that a more coherent approach would be to focus on the objective reality or unreality of corporate establishment, by reformulating corporate residence in domestic law and tax treaties.

A auditoria externa de demonstrações contábeis é um dos instrumentos mais importantes para o desenvolvimento do mercado, pelo fato de adicionar credibilidade e segurança às informações financeiras prestadas pelos agentes econômicos que buscam captar recursos junto ao público investidor. A doutrina jurídica pátria, entretanto, ao contrário do que ocorre em outros países, tem relegado o estudo do assunto a um papel secundário, quase não abordado nas obras nacionais, deixando sua pormenorização integralmente sob o domínio da ciência contábil. Esta postura causa um afastamento do jurista da realidade das circunstâncias em que a auditoria se desenvolve, fazendo com que, pela falta de compreensão das peculiaridades da matéria, haja a aplicação inadequada de muitos institutos a uma realidade específica e, muitas vezes, diversa daquela para as quais referidos institutos foram concebidos. Como a matéria abrange tanto o Direito quanto a Contabilidade, tencionamos fazer aqui uma abordagem conjunta, a fim de possibilitar a comunicação das duas ciências e compartilhar os problemas que o tema apresenta. Passamos em revista a natureza dos principais institutos de auditoria; seu relacionamento e importância na economia; as características jurídicas do contrato, suas obrigações, as partes contratantes e os terceiros interessados; o desenvolvimento contábil de sua execução; e seu relacionamento com os sistemas de governança corporativa. Além disso, verificamos as atuais tendências quanto ao sistema de riscos e responsabilidade civil do auditor, matéria amplamente discutida no âmbito internacional.

This study is focused on the linkages between the legislative families as descriptors of national legislative systems and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs) issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). We consider such analysis as a case study for the more general issue of explaining the preferences of national regulators in the adoption of foreign norms, rules, standards and practices. By using a dataset of 162 jurisdictions and dummy variables designed to capture the current stage of IFRSs adoption and, respectively, the taxonomy of their legislative systems, we find that a full IFRSs adoption is more likely to occur in countries which have principles-based on legislative mono-systems. In addition, we observe that a strong rule of law, with an effective mechanism of property rights reinforcement, as well as the pre-adoption existence of a pro-growth set of public policies can contribute to the encouragement of IFRSs adoption.

A tese a ser defendida é a de que a autorregulação institucionalmente estruturada e legitimada pela regulação é um eficiente arranjo para tratar as falhas e riscos inerentes ao mercado de bolsa. O trabalho se inicia com a descrição da atual estrutura da autorregulação do mercado de bolsa, destacando seu novo formato institucional decorrente do processo de desmutualização e abertura de capital das entidades administradoras do mercado de bolsa e concluindo pela necessidade de adoção de novas perspectivas sobre o tema que transcendam o aparente antagonismo entre concepções liberais e intervencionistas. A partir dessa premissa, o trabalho apresenta uma visão panorâmica da evolução histórica da autorregulação do mercado de bolsa e considerações sobre os conceitos de autorregulação em outras áreas do conhecimento, a fim de identificar suas variações e seus elementos mais marcantes que constituirão a base a partir da qual serão apresentadas as novas perspectivas de análise do tema. As perspectivas propostas enfocam a natureza jurídica da autorregulação do mercado de bolsa como atividade paraestatal destinada a concretizar o modelo teórico neoclássico de justa formação dos preços segundo a livre atuação das forças de oferta e demanda e, também, melhorar os padrões de conduta praticados no mercado. Para tanto, o trabalho propõe que as decisões tomadas no âmbito da autorregulação se pautem por critérios materiais baseados nas premissas teóricas da concorrência perfeita e na exigência de cumprimento dos deveres derivados da boa-fé objetiva (informação, lealdade e proteção). Por fim, é apresentada uma especulação teórica, preliminar e não definitiva, denominada teoria palco-platéia, que visa situar o desenvolvimento da estrutura de autorregulação do mercado de bolsa como parte de uma questão essencial de interação entre indivíduo e sociedade representada nas diversas situações comunicativas envolvidas nos processos decisórios individuais e coletivos que modelam os padrões de conduta e as instituições públicas e privadas.

An Intermediary Holding Company (“IHC”) is a company that is interposed between an ultimate holding company and the operating subsidiaries of a group of companies. The IHC operates at an international level such that either its holding company or its subsidiaries or both are located in a country foreign to the IHC. Its main functions are to acquire, manage and dispose of the assets of the group of companies and to facilitate structural flexibility of a group of companies. Investors have tax and non-tax reasons for conducting business using an IHC, and, depending on the reasons, they determine the location of the IHC based on the characteristics of potential host countries. This thesis analyses the suitability of the South African corporate tax regime for the use of South African-resident Intermediary Holding Companies. The South African government has the objective of promoting South Africa as a gateway for investment in Africa and for this reason the present research is important. Such an objective could be adversely affected by a corporate tax regime that is not suitable for the operations of an IHC. Furthermore, the Katz Commission recommended in 1997 that South Africa should consider introducing a regime that is suitable for the location of holding companies. In discharging its functions the IHC attracts liability for corporate income tax, capital gains tax, controlled foreign company tax and dividends tax. It also exposes itself to anti-avoidance measures such as thin capitalisation and transfer pricing provisions. The existence of such taxes and anti-avoidance measures in the tax system of a country may deter investors from locating an IHC in such country. Exchange control regulations could also adversely affect the ability of the IHC to perform its functions effectively, as their purpose is to restrict the movement of capital out of the country. The South African legal system contains all these taxes and anti-avoidance measures as well as exchange control provisions. However, it also contains tax instruments that alleviate the tax burden on an investor using an IHC such as the participation exemption, advance tax rulings and a network of tax treaties. Against this background this thesis analyses the South African corporate tax system to determine whether it is suitable for locating an IHC. In the analysis, a comparative study is done of the tax systems of two of the most effective IHC host countries, namely the Netherlands and Mauritius. In addition, a brief discussion of the special features contained in the tax systems of Belgium, Ireland and the United Kingdom outlines why these jurisdictions are not necessarily successful in attracting IHCs. The thesis also discusses harmful tax practices and the attitude of the international community towards countries that engage in harmful tax competition in order to determine the limits to which a country should use the tax system to attract investment. Finally, the thesis makes recommendations as to what adjustments could be made in order to enhance the suitability of South Africa to host an IHC. The thesis recommends a special dispensation as regards corporate income tax and exchange control that would apply to wholly-owned South African companies that own foreign subsidiary shares and loans that consist of 80% of the gross asset total of these companies.

The authorities of the West African Economic and Monetary Union UEMOA fully understand that accounting plays the significant role in the process of economic development and regional integration in the member states. They decided to establish a common new accounting system, called West African Accounting System (SYSCOA). The accounting system has been developed on the initiative of the Central Bank of West African States

L'apparition des marchés financiers dans le paysage économique et financier des États membres de l'espace OHADA vers la fin des années 1990 a débouché sur la nécessité de mettre sur pied des règles et des structures d'encadrement à la fois nouvelles et fonctionnelles. Soucieux de faire des marchés financiers des facteurs clés de leurs politiques de développement, les pouvoirs publics se sont très tôt imposés comme des maillons incontournables des processus de création et de fonctionnement de ces marchés. Cette omniprésence des pouvoirs publics a contribué à l'émergence d'un schéma novateur et sans précédant, à savoir la mise sur pied de marchés financiers et d'organes d'encadrement à vocation communautaire. Toutefois, pour atteindre l'efficacité recherchée, les nouvelles structures d'encadrement doivent trouver à s'articuler avec les dispositifs juridiques et institutionnels existant tant aux niveaux régionaux qu'aux niveaux nationaux. De même, un juste équilibre doit être trouvé entre les intérêts légitimes des investisseurs étrangers et les ambitions de développement économique des États concernés. The appearance of financial markets in the economic and financial landscape of the Member states of the OHADA space towards the end of 1990s resulted in the necessity of setting up rules and supervisory structures at once new and functional. Worried of making financial markets a leading instrument of their development policies, public authorities very early positioned themselves as essential actors of the processes of creation and functioning of these markets. This omnipresence of public authorities contributed to the emergence of an innovative and unprecedented scheme: The setting up of financial markets and supervisory structures with community vocation. However, to achieve the desired efficiency, the new supervisory structures must be adapted to the legal and institutional arrangements existing both at regional and national levels. Also, a just balance must be found between the legitimate interests of foreign investors and the ambitions of economic development of the concerned States.

This study examines the macro and micro level determinants of the quality of reported earnings. The prior literature suggests that both micro and macro variables impact on discretionary accruals choice in managing earnings. However, most of the studies on earnings management have been single country studies that have focussed only on micro variables as all firms within the samples examined have been subject to the same interplay of macro economic, legal, cultural and institutional frameworks. This study addresses this gap in the literature by using a sample of 156,906 firm year observations from 63 countries over the period 1998-2007 to examine the role of thirteen micro and macro variables in determining earnings quality. The macro variables studied include legal enforcement, political system, and control of corruption, culture and adoption of IFRS. Earnings management is estimated using the modified Jones model (Dechow et al. 1995) in a cross section (DeFond and Jiambalvo 1994; Francis et al. 1998). The results of the study indicate that macro and micro level variables have a strong impact on earnings management behaviour and thus earnings quality. The limits imposed by a country's legal, cultural and institutional setting on managerial discretionary accruals choices, strongly impact the quality of reported earnings. Future research on earnings management should therefore control both micro and macro level variables.

Un des problèmes les plus fréquents auxquels les entreprises se confrontent est sans doute celui relatif à la dotation des moyens financiers. Le problème de financement des entreprises est plus qu’actuel au regard du scandale des subprimes aux USA en 2007 ayant conduit au crash boursier de septembre 2008 mieux encore, l’affaire Maldoff. Ce phénomène financier qui touche sans exception toute la vie économique n’a pas pour autant épargné les groupes de sociétés. En fait, les groupes constituent...

La présente thèse vise à montrer que l'analyse économique du droit est une philosophie du soupçon, un système logique d'interprétation des phénomènes juridiques qui peut nous apporter des connaissances si nous prenons bien en compte sa qualité de système d'interprétation. Les propositions économiques étant largement analytiques, elles peuvent nous informer uniquement par les questions qu'elles suscitent. Le raisonnement économique est tout d'abord un code de perception qui se fonde sur deux concepts : la rationalité et l'efficience. Ce code de perception nous donne des intuitions qui « semblent » pertinentes pour l'étude du droit (à la fois sur ce qu'est le droit l'approche du raisonnement juridique). Se pose alors la question de ce qui fait la « validité » des connaissances proposées. Des considérations a priori ou des considérations empiriques semblent insuffisantes pour rendre compte de la pertinence de ce type d'analyse. Nous proposons finalement une approche en termes de renversement : ce n'est qu'en que le code n'est qu'un code et en confrontant ses propositions à d'autres points de vue que nous pouvons espérer gagner des « connaissances ». L'analyse économique du droit pose aussi la question de l'analyse juridique du droit.

O International Accounting Sstandards Board-IASB vem buscando meios de regular a atividade contábil pela adoção de pronunciamentos contábeis International Financial Reporting Standard-IFRS para proteger os parceiros econômicos e facilitar o funcionamento do mercado de capital no mundo financeiro. Neste processo mundial de convergência internacional, vários países do continente africano parecem indiferentes. Entretanto, dezesseis países da África Ocidental e Central formaram o bloco econômico: a Organização para a Harmonização do Direito de Negócios na África-OHADA, que criou um Sistema contábil de aplicação comum - o Sysco-OHADA. Antigas colônias francesas, esses países ficaram muito tempo fechados e mal conhecidos no exterior, bem como suas práticas contábeis. Isso levanta a pergunta: quais são as condições econômicas, políticas e sociais dos países da OHADA frente à regulação da contabilidade internacional? O objetivo principal deste estudo é analisar as condições de regulação contábil interna dos países-membros da OHADA ao se alinhar às normas contábeis internacionais emitidas pelo IASB. Para alcançar este objetivo, foi analisado o ambiente legal e regulamentar do bloco OHADA; foi comparado o referencial conceitual do Sysco-OHADA e o do IASB; algumas normas, bem como o âmbito sócio-econômico da OHADA, com os demais países que possuem processo de convergência avançado. As análises mostraram que a contabilidade da OHADA é de tipo europeu-continental baseada em regras. A estrutura conceitual do Sysco-OHADA diverge do IASB em vários níveis e suas normas apresentam menos detalhamento e é sujeito a interpretações diversas. O bloco OHADA apresenta um mercado de ações fraco, um baixo nível de desenvolvimento humano, um nível de abertura comercial fechado em relação aos demais países comparados. O nível de desenvolvimento econômica e social do bloco OHADA não pode proporcionar uma convergência às normas IFRS em curto prazo.

Libya is a predominately Muslim country where Islamic finance has not yet been established. However, given the current extensive program of financial reform in Libya and the rapid growth and appeal of Islamic finance in comparable economies, there is growing pressure for a system of Islamic finance to be provided. There is then a pressing need for research into the prospects for Islamic finance from a consumer and provider perceptive to inform this debate and thereby meet the needs of policymakers, financial service providers and prospective users. Accordingly, this study of Libyan attitudes towards Islamic methods of finance, the first study attempted in the Libyan context and one of few studies globally, applies a model derived from the Theory of Reasoned Action to analyse attitudes towards Islamic finance. The particular focus is to understand how the Theory of Reasoned Action can be used for predicting and understanding attitudes towards the potential use of Islamic methods of finance by Libyan retail consumers, business firms and banks. Four main research questions are posed to address this objective. First, does awareness of Islamic methods of finance influence attitudes towards the use of Islamic finance? Second, do socioeconomic, demographic and other factors influence attitudes towards Islamic finance? Third, what are the principal motivating factors towards the potential use of Islamic finance? Finally, is religion the major influence on the likelihood of engaging in Islamic finance? Three surveys of 385 retail consumers, 296 business firms and 134 bank managers in Libya are conducted in 2007/08 to achieve this objective. Descriptive analysis and multivariate statistical analysis (including factor analysis, discriminant analysis and binary logistic regressions) are used to analyse the data. The principal findings are that awareness of Islamic methods of finance and socioeconomic, demographic and business characteristics are key determinants of the likelihood of the use of Islamic finance. Further, religion plays a key, though not the only, role in influencing these attitudes. The thesis findings are of key importance in informing future financial industry practice and financial policy formation in Libya.

In a progressive income tax system with an individual tax unit, high-rate taxpayers have an incentive to split income with lower-rate family members to minimise the family’s total tax burden. This raises equity and neutrality concerns. Adopting a spousal tax unit limits the gains from income splitting, but the individual is the better choice on privacy, autonomy, equality, definitional, marriage neutrality and work incentive grounds. Once the individual is chosen as the income tax unit, the control model provides a strong policy basis for attributing both earned and unearned income to individuals. Income splitting, however, undermines this model as well as the individual tax unit. This thesis focuses on the UK’s approach to income-splitting in family businesses. The relevant UK income tax rules, particularly the settlements provisions, are inadequate for the task. Various possible reforms are examined. Incorporating a transfer pricing or ‘reasonableness’ test into the settlements provisions would strengthen these rules, but would make taxpayer compliance with an uncertain regime even more difficult. Another option is to expand the scope of employment tax by moving the borderline between employees and the self-employed or companies. Deeper structural reforms could be made to enhance the neutrality of taxation on different legal forms of economic activity. This would reduce the incentives to incorporate for tax savings, including from income splitting. Integration of income tax and NICs is one such option; a dual income tax is another. A TAAR or GAAR also could be pursued. Ultimately, some combination of these various reform options could provide a partial solution to this challenging issue.

Les pays africains de la zone franc ont entrepris, il y a maintenant deux décennies, des réformes de leurs secteurs financiers, avec pour ambition non seulement de restaurer les équilibres nécessaires à leur efficacité et la confiance des agents économiques envers les institutions financières, mais aussi de favoriser la mobilisation des épargnes et la diversification des canaux de financement. L'objectif final étant la relance d'une croissance économique stable et durable. Au sein de la zone UEMOA (Union Économique et Monétaire Ouest-Africaine), le projet majeur au coeur de ces réformes fut la création d'un marché financier commun dont la mission est de doter les entreprises des moyens de financement à long terme, qui leur permettraient de réaliser leurs projets les plus productifs et d'accroitre leurs performances. L'autre mission dévolue à ce marché est d'attirer des capitaux étrangers dans la sous-région. Notre étude a pour but de déterminer si, une décennie après sa création, le marché financier a atteint ses objectifs en termes d'amélioration des performances des entreprises et de relance de la croissance économique. Globalement, nous observons que les entreprises cotées à la Bourse Régionale des Valeurs Mobilières (Place boursière du marché financier de l'UEMOA) ont vu leurs performances opérationnelles s'améliorer, notamment au cours de la seconde moitié de la décennie. Le développement du marché boursier semble également avoir eu un impact positif sur la croissance économique de la Côte d'ivoire, Pays phare de l'Union, qui détient 34 des 38 entreprises cotées. Cependant, le marché n'a pas réussi à attirer des capitaux étrangers; mais à l'inverse, l'écrasante majorité des entreprises qui lèvent des fonds sur le marché financier de UEMOA sont des filiales des multinationales occidentales. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Introduction en bourse, Croissance économique, Performance, Marché financier, Entreprises cotées.

L’examen des relations de crédit entre la banque et les usagers révèle que ces dernières sont déséquilibrées au profit du banquier. Le déséquilibre en question est essentiellement un déséquilibre en pouvoir, fondé principalement sur la nature même de la convention de crédit en tant que contrat d’adhésion et contrat intuitu personae. À l’aide de l’approche systémique, de l’analyse, de la synthèse et de la ponctuation, sans oublier la méthode comparative, notre étude a consisté à l’examen des différentes manifestations de ce déséquilibre et des réactions qu’il a suscitées. Ce déséquilibre se manifeste d’abord par la prépondérance de la volonté du banquier, conséquence du déclin de l’autonomie de la volonté. Cette prépondérance se manifeste aussi bien dans les préalables, que dans la naissance des relations de crédit. Dans les préalables, elle s’exprime à travers l’exigence de compte en banque ainsi qu’à travers l’exigence de solvabilité, dont la satisfaction est une condition sine qua non vers la naissance des relations de crédit. Ensuite, dans la naissance desdites relations, la prépondérance de la volonté du banquier réside dans la détermination unilatérale des clauses de la convention de crédit par ce dernier. L’usager dont le choix est également limité par plusieurs contraintes, est réduit à adhérer à ces clauses, d’autant plus que le dernier mot revient au banquier, compte tenu de l’absence de droit au crédit tenant à l’intuitus personae. Cette prépondérance de la volonté du banquier se concrétise par la conclusion de la convention de crédit. Au delà de la prépondérance de la volonté du banquier dans la mise en place des relations de crédit, le déséquilibre de ces dernières se manifeste aussi par le rôle considérable des techniques et pratiques bancaires qui, n’étant pas neutres, constituent une forme de domination indirecte du banquier. D’abord, les techniques de gestion bancaire dominent les relations de crédit aussi bien objectivement, que subjectivement devant une impuissance marquée de l’usager. Ensuite, les usages bancaires, forgés par la pratique bancaire, reflètent la volonté du banquier qui est à leur source. Ils dominent les relations de crédit à plusieurs niveaux, malgré certaines limites tenant à l’ordre public. Le déséquilibre des relations de crédit, compte tenu de ses conséquences, a nécessité des réactions. Celles-ci consistent dans sa modération aussi bien par les règles du droit commun, qu’à travers celles du droit du crédit. Dans la première hypothèse, la modération s’obtient par les obligations et la responsabilité du banquier, face à celles de l’usager. Dans la seconde hypothèse, elle s’obtient à travers des règles du droit du crédit protégeant les usagers ; à côté des politiques publiques de protection spécifique des usagers les plus vulnérables en matière de crédit. L’étude du déséquilibre des relations de crédit entre la banque et les usagers permet de conclure que ce dernier tient à l’essence même de la convention de crédit. C’est pourquoi les réactions tentant d’y faire face n’aboutissent qu’à sa modération, ce qui l’atténue fortement. De ce constat, on peut estimer que l’amélioration des relations de crédit et de l’accès au crédit nécessite une révision de la convention de crédit.

O presente trabalho investiga as novas estruturas organizacionais das bolsas de valores e das bolsas de mercadorias e futuros, implementadas após os processos de desmutualização. É feita uma análise da importância das bolsas para o desenvolvimento econômico, bem como do seu papel de entidades auto-reguladoras. São ainda apresentados os principais fatores que motivaram a conversão das bolsas de associações mutualísticas para sociedades anônimas, bem como as conseqüências dessa alteração organizacional. O trabalho explora também as alterações regulamentares ocorridas no exterior, que buscaram evitar o surgimento de conflitos de interesses entre o papel de entidades auto-reguladoras das bolsas e seu objetivo de maximização do valor das ações. Realiza-se, por fim, uma análise crítica da Instrução CVM n.O 461/07, norma editada pela Comissão de Valores Mobiliários (CVM) que regula a organização, o funcionamento e as atividades das bolsas no Brasil. O trabalho conclui que a norma editada pela CVM utiliza diversos mecanismos de controle que objetivam evitar a ocorrência de conflitos de interesses, com o estabelecimento de práticas de governança corporativa internamente às bolsas, na esteira das experiências observadas em outros países. The present work examines the new organizational structure of the stock and derivatives exchanges, implemented after their demutualization process. It analyses the importance of the stock exchange for the economical development, as well as its role as self-regulatory organization. There are also presented the main factors that motivated the conversion of the stock exchange, from mutual associations to corporations, as well as the consequences of this organizational change. The work also explores the regulatory changes made in foreign countries, that aim to avoid the conflict of interests between the role of the exchanges as selfregulatory entities and their goal of maximizing value. Finally, a critical analysis is made, regarding CVM´s Instruction n.º 461/07, rule issued by the Brazilian Securities and Exchange Comission (Comissão de Valores Mobiliários - CVM) that deals with the structure and functioning of the Brazilian exchanges. The work concludes that the rule issued by the CVM uses many mechanisms of control that aim to avoid the conflict of interests, settling high level corporate governance practices inside the stock exchange, in accordance to international regulatory standards.