Bibliographie sélective OHADA

EU’s competence over FDI: European technological sovereignty. Definition, origins, and scope of EU foreign investment law. EU competence over foreign direct investments. European technological sovereignty. Regulation 452/2019–screening mechanisms in national legislation with a focus of the Italian regime. Structure of regulation 452/2019. Implementation in national legislation. The screening regulation as a tool to enforce technological sovereignty. EU technological sovereignty in practice. First and second annual report on the screening of foreign direct investments into the Union. A first appraisal of the problematic interplay between FDIs and technological sovereignty.

Les progrès de l’intelligence artificielle issus de la croissance de la puissance de calcul, des mégadonnées et des nouveaux algorithmes de plus en plus puissants ont permis l'automatisation de certaines activités intellectuelles humaines. Les créateurs sont donc directement concernés, car il est désormais possible d'automatiser le processus d’exécution de création humain. Ainsi, Il convient donc d'effectuer une étude approfondie sur les oeuvres automatisées afin de déterminer si elles sont conformes au droit d'auteur et, si ce n'est pas le cas, si le droit d'auteur doit être adapté pour s’adapter à ce nouveau phénomène. Cette étude soulève plusieurs questions fondamentales, notamment celle de savoir si une œuvre automatisée est licite et comment évaluer son originalité. Elle suscite également une interrogation quant au statut de l'auteur de l'œuvre automatisée. Ces problématiques sont davantage importantes, en raison de l'utilisation croissante des systèmes d'IA en tant qu'outils de création.

La zone CEMAC (Communauté Économique et Monétaire de l’Afrique Centrale) dispose d’innombrables ressources minières solides et liquides. Dans cette zone, l’exploitation minière est considérée comme un véritable levier stratégique de développement socio-économique. C’est pour cette raison que la vision 2025 ainsi que le Programme Économique Régional de cette zone communautaire l’ont érigé comme pilier de l’émergence économique et initié, entre autres, la création d’une académie minière, les projets transfrontaliers d’exploitation minière ainsi que l’adoption d’un code minier communautaire. Au-delà des commodités économiques qu’apportent l’exploitation minière aux pays membres de la CEMAC, il sied de souligner que cette activité demeure concurremment une des principales sources de dégradations environnementales dans cette sous-région. En effet, l’exploitation minière se déroule en plusieurs phases. Pendant la phase dite de concassage ou de broyage, des contaminants tels que le cadmium, le plomb, le sélénium et l’arsenic, utilisés pour extraire les minerais, sont rejetés dans l’air. Au contact de celui-ci, ces contaminants subissent des transformations physico-chimiques et finissent par polluer l’air. Lors de la phase dite de lessivage, certains de ces constituants toxiques composés généralement d’azote, de cyanure, d’ammoniac, de nitrate ou de nitrite sont, quant à eux, déversés dans des eaux domestiques utilisées par les communautés locales. Ces substances chimiques ne se dissolvent pas dans ces eaux. Au contraire, elles y restent pendant plusieurs années et finissent par devenir des foyers de pollution des eaux domestiques. Aujourd’hui, ces répercussions environnementales, qui constituent indéniablement une violation du droit à un environnement sain (DES), menacent non seulement la santé mais également la survie de plusieurs communautés locales vivant dans les pays de la zone CEMAC. Compte tenu des préjudices qu’elles subissent, ces dernières sont légitimement en droit de demander réparation. Selon certaines recherches dont celles effectuées par le Centre de ressources sur les entreprises et les droits de l’homme, malgré la multiplication des atteintes du DES du fait de l’exploitation minière et les dénonciations de la société civile dans cette sous-région d’Afrique, les principales victimes, en l’occurrence les communautés locales, n’entreprennent que rarement voire quasiment jamais une action en réparation devant les juridictions compétentes. C’est fort de ce constat qu’à travers une analyse positiviste de certains éléments règlementaires et socio-contextuels, cette thèse s’est proposée dans un premier temps d’identifier les principaux obstacles à l’origine de cette quasi-absence d’actions en réparation des communautés locales. Dans un second temps, elle s’est astreinte à proposer deux grandes pistes de réforme en la matière. Un double objectif sous-tend cette proposition. Elle vise d’abord à ménager le mécanisme d’action en réparation en la matière afin de faciliter voire encourager les communautés locales victimes des violations de leur droit à un environnement sain par l’exploitation minière à saisir les juridictions compétentes. Ensuite, elle vise également à garantir une obtention effective de l’indemnisation des préjudices qu’elles subissent du fait de l’activité minière.

[eng] Groups of companies are a complex corporate structure, whose regulation can be problematic, especially when it comes to liability. Indeed, liability within corporate groups draws forth a series of issues principally due to the principles of separate corporate personality and limited liability. In the context of limited liability, which is based on the notion of separate legal personality, the main issue waxes the protection of the creditors, in particular the creditors of the subsidiaries. One can find three regulatory templates for handling corporate groups and their liability: policing via general company and/or civil law (such as the English model); policing via special group legislation (such as the German model); and policing via branches of law such as insolvency law, antitrust law, and contract law, among others (which is the case in numerous jurisdictions, either coupled with the first or the second model). Lifting the corporate veil has come as an answer to corporate separateness, by permitting to ignore the shareholders’ limited liability and hold them personally liable for the debts of their companies in specific circumstances. However, one can hardly find cases in which the corporate veil has been successfully lifted, due to many factors. Other important questions that are posed in the scope of corporate groups liability are the parent company’s liability for the payment of its daughter companies’ debts when insolvency strikes and other respects, besides the matter of group liability. Furthermore, liability is as well a key player in terms of tort law, and corporate social responsibility has therefore found a place in the sun in the present climate.

L’instrumentalisation des procédures collectives par les groupes de sociétés se manifeste au travers de deux affaires emblématiques : Cœur Défense et Sodimédical. Dès lors, l’instrumentalisation semble recouvrir les situations dans lesquelles l’effort collectif mis en place au sein de la procédure pour traiter les difficultés du débiteur n’apparaît pas légitime. La question de savoir à quel titre ces situations sont perçues comme illégitimes conduit à reconstituer le système formé par le droit des entreprises en difficulté afin de déterminer ce qui fait sa légitimité. Sa cohérence, son ordre tiennent à sa finalité essentielle : le traitement d’une entreprise en difficulté. Or, les conditions d’ouverture de procédures collectives n’étant pas appréciées à l’aune de cette finalité, une procédure collective peut être ouverte à l'égard d'un débiteur qui n’est pas une entreprise. Dans ces circonstances, la légitimité de l’application du droit des entreprises en difficulté est mise en cause. Ce droit est instrumentalisé dès lors qu’il bénéficie à un débiteur qui n’est pas une entreprise, ce qui trouve à se réaliser particulièrement au sein des groupes de sociétés où le principe de l’autonomie de la personne morale ne permet pas de se saisir de l’entreprise. La problématique révélée par l’instrumentalisation des procédures collectives par les groupes de sociétés démontre une crise de légitimité de l’application du droit des entreprises en difficulté.

Le procès pénal n’est pas qu’un assemblage de règles techniques. Il est irrigué par les garanties du droit à un procès équitable qui implique un équilibre des droits des parties au procès. Dans la mesure où ces garanties ont été développées avant tout au bénéfice de la personne poursuivie qu’il fallait protéger face à un ministère public représentant la société et disposant de prérogatives considérables, l’équilibre procédural était surtout recherché entre ces deux parties principales au procès pénal. Cependant, avec l’action civile exercée devant les juridictions répressives, de plus en plus de parties défendant des intérêts variés, individuels et collectifs participent à la procédure pénale. La présence de ces parties civiles au cours du procès pénal, pour ancrée qu’elle soit dans le système juridique français, est une source de transformations de la physionomie du procès. En effet, compte tenu de leur diversité et de l’accroissement de leurs prérogatives ces dernières décennies, la configuration du procès pénal change : de bipartite il tend à devenir véritablement tripartite ce qui influe sur l’équilibre recherché entre les parties. Il devient donc nécessaire de déterminer et d’apporter des réponses à l’impact de l’action civile française sur l’économie générale du procès pénal au regard des garanties du droit à un procès équitable. Partant, un constat s’impose : la fragilisation du droit à un procès pénal équitable en présence d’une ou plusieurs parties civiles. Il apparaît ainsi que l’économie générale du procès pénal ne peut pas être envisagée à travers le prisme de rapports symétriques entre la ou les parties civiles, le ministère public et la défense. Les caractéristiques propres à chaque catégorie de parties civiles doivent être prises en compte pour adapter les règles du droit à un procès pénal équitable.

Un juge en droit de la concurrence est un juge qui est chargé de veiller à ce que les lois sur la concurrence soient respectées. La difficulté est que cette définition peut s’appliquer autant à un juge qu’à une autorité. En effet, le choix de ne pas adapter l’appareil juridictionnel pour une juridiction spécialisée s’est traduit par la création d’une Autorité de la concurrence aux pouvoirs proche d’une juridiction. S’expliquant par une forte prégnance du fait économique dans l’analyse des pratiques anticoncurrentielles, à l’avantage notamment de l’Autorité de la concurrence, le rôle du juge a pourtant évolué au fil des ans. Finalement, est apparu un clivage entre une action publique qui vise à prévenir, à dissuader et à sanctionner les comportements anticoncurrentiels et une action privée qui favorise la réparation d’un préjudice causé aux victimes de pratiques anticoncurrentielles. Il en résulte un rôle différencié dans l’application du droit de la concurrence qui renouvelle la réflexion sur la définition d’un juge du droit de la concurrence

O objetivo do trabalho foi identificar tendências de investigações científicas, publicadas no período de 2008 a 2020, sobre a aplicação das International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) nos países africanos. Por meio de uma revisão da literatura, foram analisados, em particular, os tópicos abordados, motivos e teorias aplicadas nos estudos. As fontes de recolha de dados foram as bases de dados da Emerald Insiht e Sience Direct. A amostra consiste em 31 artigos extraídos das revistas internacionais de contabilidade que publicaram sobre a adoção, compliance e consequências das IFRS no continente africano. Ainda que tenham ocorrido numerosas variações na aplicação dos normativos internacionais, principalmente relacionados à conformidade, a maioria dos países africanos tem adotado às normas IFRS. No entanto, mesmo que a maioria tenha prolongado a implementação das IFRS, os resultados apontam que a adoção das mesmas gera criação de vantagens competitivas e integração para os mercados globais. Concluiu-se que: (i) a regulamentação institucional limita a aplicação das IFRS na África; (ii) as práticas contábeis são influenciadas pelos ambientes externos e internos da organização institucional; (iii) elas devem ser baseadas em decisões racionais e nas crenças das instituições. Por fim, os achados apontam as influências culturais como justificativas da forma escalonada de como os países do mundo, não somente africanos, vem adotando às normas IFRS.

The processes by which a model of social regulation channels its way of resolving conflicts make the strength of its conflict resolution system. Court justice has lost its exemplary function. The crisis of effectiveness and the crisis of legitimacy that the processual mode of dispute resolution is undergoing in our States, make it a justice system that is considered to have broken down. The need for justice thus directly raises the question of social regulation, the relevant model of social regulation. The call for a ‘right to sue’ open to the system of alternative dispute resolution rather than restrictively to the judiciary to resolve disagreements is the spearhead of the combinatorial approach to the administration of conflicts, the ferment of a plural approach to access to justice. Has Cameroonian law begun to renew its vision of the right to take legal action? Does it renew the dominant classical approach to the system of social regulation? The study notes the global and integral recognition of the alternative dispute resolution system, another, less contentious, way of dealing with disputes, the emergence within the traditional dispute resolution system of a right to amicable dispute resolution, but in an embryonic state. It then poses, in a prospective approach, the need for a unitary and global approach to private justice as challenges to be met to ensure the quality of this form of justice.

Competition law and intellectual property law share the objective of incentivising innovation. However, this objective is achieved in different ways, which, at times, can create tension between the two areas of law. It is imperative that this tension at the interface of competition law and intellectual property law is resolved in a manner that encourages innovation. Issues regarding the licensing of intellectual property, Standard Essential Patents, pay-for-delay agreements and no-challenge clauses are instances where the tension between competition law and intellectual property law is especially prevalent. These instances will be discussed in detail, and what is learnt from how the European Union and Australia handles it, will be applied to South Africa. The European Union, Australia and South Africa have different ways of dealing with situations where the exercise of intellectual property rights has an effect on competition. The European Union has block exemptions, which contains “safe havens” for conduct in specific circumstances. The block exemptions are often accompanied by guidelines, providing firms and individuals with greater detail in order to self-assess their compliance with the exemption. Australia has authorisation, notification and class exemption procedures. Firms can apply to the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission to authorise conduct that might potentially breach the Competition and Consumer Act 2010. Exemptions may also be granted more broadly by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission in terms of the class exemption procedures. In South Africa, the law concerning the interface between competition law and intellectual property is still in its infancy, and a lot can be learned from jurisdictions like the European Union and Australia regarding the most efficient way to handle this tension. Currently, the Competition Act 89 of 1998 in South Africa contains Section 10(4), the intellectual property exemption clause. A firm can apply to the Competition Commission for an intellectual property exemption from the application of Chapter 2 of the Competition Act “to an agreement or practice, or a category of agreements or practices” which pertains to the exercise of intellectual property rights. However, it is submitted that Section 10(4), by itself, is not the most efficient mechanism to resolve the tension that arises at the interface of competition law and intellectual property law in a way that incentivises innovation. It is proposed that the exemption provision can be made more effective if it is properly applied in conjunction with class exemptions and guidelines.

This study investigates the impact and importance of the legal regulation of trade union recognition and associated challenges in South Africa. It evaluates the current regulation of trade union recognition, including legislation and judicial attitudes apparent from the interpretation, application, and enforcement of such legislation, to ascertain its continued appropriateness in the current South African industrial relations environment. The study considers the policy choices of both voluntarism and majoritarianism underlying the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (“LRA”) and the “workplace” constituency to which it applies as factors that might be contributing to challenges experienced in the current regulation of collective bargaining in South Africa. It evaluates the current model of trade union recognition and representativeness as it applies to the acquisition by trade unions of organisational rights, collective bargaining rights and trade union recognition for purposes of retrenchment consultation. It recognises that the specific model chosen to regulate the representative status of trade unions has a significant effect on the ability of trade unions to organise and conclude collective agreements and, as such, on the distributive effects of such agreements in the labour market and broader society. The study commences with an historical overview of the regulation of trade union recognition under the 1956 LRA and thereafter considers the 1995 LRA as a product of criticism against the 1956 LRA. Specific issues considered, largely based on the analysis of the relevant decisions by the Constitutional Court, include the following: the impact of Constitutional Court jurisprudence relating to trade union recognition on the process of collective bargaining and on the legal regulation of the right to strike; the role of representativeness and its link with the workplace as the constituency for recognition and acquisition of organisational rights; the often winner-takes-all effect of the current model on collective bargaining as a major cause of labour unrest; the reactive role the legislature has played over the past, almost three decades to address challenges; the extent to which intervention should take place to safeguard the institution of collective bargaining from being undermined as well as the regulation of collective agreements as the product of collective bargaining and as the primary source of terms and conditions of employment. The comparative review of Canadian law focuses on a number of issues selected specifically for their potential to provide insights into how the weaknesses in South African regulation may be remedied. This includes insights into the accommodation of special or significant minority interests and how to address recognition in the context of multi-location employers. The thesis concludes with remarks on the insights gained from the Canadian model and the 1956 LRA. Where appropriate, suggestions are made on the way forward for South Africa as to the appropriate regulation of trade union recognition and representativeness.

Le recours à l’arbitrage en matière des litiges contractuels entre des parties privées présente des avantages par rapport aux procédures devant les tribunaux. Les avantages de l’arbitrage qui a une valeur particulière en matière contractuelle se multiplient : les arbitres peuvent être choisis en raison de leurs compétences spéciales selon le sujet du contrat; la confidentialité peut être préservée; l’arbitrage peut être utilisé pour régler des questions sur le même sujet ou des sujets semblables mais survenant dans des pays différents, ceci peut présenter l'avantage de régler en une seule fois tous les différends entre les parties, surtout en matière de commerce.

Dans une économie de plus en plus globalisée, faute d’harmonisation juridique, les parties aux litiges contractuels n’hésitent plus à consulter les forums juridiques pour identifier les pays susceptibles de leur offrir le meilleur niveau de protection. Presque tous les litiges en matière contractuels se prêtent au début des conflits à la médiation. Il arrive souvent que lors d’un litige relatif aux droits contractuels, les parties recourent à la médiation. Cependant, pour pouvoir y recourir de manière utile, il est important d’éluder certains obstacles. Un litige ayant trait à un contrat, soulève des questions complexes de faits et de droit, peut nécessiter des dépenses importantes et exiger la présence de témoins experts. Puisque l’obligation contractuelle émise sera presque toujours un enjeu, un litige ayant trait au commerce, notamment international, commande une connaissance approfondie de la législation sur les objets de transactions, ainsi qu’une expérience des tribunaux qui traitent la plupart du temps de ces questions. En pratique, l’espace de rencontre entre la médiation et les litiges contractuels est le contrat lui-même. Or, le domaine contractuel est le domaine privilégié de la médiation. En réalité, la médiation peut avoir lieu dans les relations liée aux contrats de commerce, dans lequel une dévolution des droits contractuels est prévue. Ce mode alternatif fournit un moyen pour éviter les contentieux judiciaires.

For several decades, environmentalists have raised the alarm regarding the impending environmental catastrophe that results from the Anthropocene. Much attention has been given to the role that States play in contributing to ecological damage being wrought upon the Earth. However, we have only looked at the environmental destruction perpetrated by multinational companies (“MNCs”) in the past decade. Natural disasters like the Deepwater Horizon explosion have placed MNCs' dangerous impact on the environment in sharp relief. At the same time, revelations in the Carbon Majors Report and global litigation quantify the damage MNCs cause to the environment. Multinational companies (“MNCs), as a result of globalisation and trade liberalisation, are powerful entities within the global economy. Despite their size, MNCs remain primarily unregulated in international human rights law. Debates regarding who bears the duty for human rights intersect with a battle of political will between the Global North and Global South for developing binding human rights duties for MNCs. As a result, they can commit environmental harm, especially in the Global South, with relative impunity due to a lack of effective liability mechanisms. The doctrine of separate legal personality creates specific issues for holding MNCs liable for environmental harms in the Global South. Domestic courts in home States struggle to exercise jurisdiction over the environmental harms MNCs commit. In contrast, systemic barriers in host States create situations where victims are unable to seek redress within their State. To address these concerns, this thesis proposes a global liability regime founded on the principle of integrated regulation. This regime will utilise regulation at the institutional, national and international levels to enforce the environmental obligations of MNCs, rooted in the right to a healthy environment. This gives rise to multiple intersection human rights obligations which will regulate the behaviour of MNCs. This thesis recognises that such a framework requires a drastic reform in how the law and companies are conceptualised. However, such a reform would have wide-reaching implications for vindicating human rights violations.

This thesis investigates the relationship between cross-country mandatory environmental, social and governance (ESG) regulations and firm-level outcomes, such as ESG performance, corporate finance, and investment, for both developing and developed countries. ESG performance is initially examined to determine whether mandatory ESG regulations affect it and to what extent. Second, the study investigates the impact of mandatory ESG on corporate finance and investment. Lastly, the study explores whether mandatory ESG regulations affect firm-level outcomes based on countries' governance and economic systems, and industries. The study uses a large sample of 69,010 firm-years across 73 countries, over the period 2005 – 2020 to address the foregoing issues. In addressing the impact of mandatory ESG regulations on ESG performance, the study employs a difference-in-differences (DiD) design. The DiD technique can isolate the effect of regulatory shocks to firm-level outcomes. According to the DiD analysis conducted, cross-country mandatory ESG improves firm-level ESG performance in developed countries, but not in developing countries. The study also concludes that mandatory ESG regulations have a positive impact only on ESG components in developed countries and have a more dominant impact on environmental (E) component. The findings are robust to a range of checks and test cases, including a triple DiD design set-up and propensity score-matched sample. The study employs an investment Euler equation framework and generalised method of moments (GMM) estimators to explore how mandatory ESG impacts corporate finance and investment. Euler frameworks account for the dynamic nature of investment, whereas GMMs account for endogenous dynamics in dynamic models. The study demonstrates that mandatory ESG increases corporate investment by increasing firms' access to external funds. The findings are robust to a battery of tests, including a triple DiD design set-up, propensity score-matched sample and the parallel trends assumption. Using an investment Euler equation framework and the GMM estimators, the study explores whether the impact of mandatory ESG on corporate finance and investment is dependent on a country's governance and economic system. When mandatory ESG is affected by country factors such as governance systems and economic well-being, the effect of mandatory ESG on investment via internal finance channel persists, according to the study. However, while consistent results are found in developed countries, inconsistent results are found in developing countries. According to the study, oil, gas, and mining firms are likely to respond effectively to mandatory ESG regulations because of increased scrutiny and pressure. Overall, the findings from the study imply that cross-country mandatory ESG has had a positive impact on corporate ESG performance, finance, and investment. For firms located in developed countries, these findings hold consistently, while for those located in developing countries, the opposite holds true. Also, the study reveals that firms in the oil, gas, and mining industries effectively respond to regulatory requirements. As a result, this study provides policy makers and accountants with an understanding of how mandatory ESG impacts firm ESG activities and performance, which is crucial for regulatory reforms.

This paper discusses the practice of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and its challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa. The main purpose is to highlight and clarify the gaps between CSR regulations and human rights abuses caused by business organizations.

The health of a country’s banking system is a key determinant to the development of the country. A fragile banking system portends danger not only to the financial system but the entire economy. This study investigates the state of the Nigerian banking system in terms of stability or fragility from 1981 to 2020. We used the banking system fragility index (BSFI) proposed by Kibritçioğlu (2003) to analyze Nigerian banking industry aggregate data from three risk areas: credit, market and liquidity. We estimated that out of the 40 years examined, the banking system was fragile for 23 years given their BSFI less than 0 while it was not fragile for 17 years with BSFI = 0 or greater. We found that most of the years when the Nigerian banking system was fragile were periods of relaxed monetary policies, deregulation and credit expansion. Secondly, the years of banking system stability were when the county’s banking system was subjected to stiff regulation and consolidation. Given the number of years that the system was fragile, we observed that sustained economic growth and development requires that the banking system remain strong as long as possible, and that the Nigerian situation could not promote this important objective. We recommend that the financial regulatory authorities put in place more stringent policies as banks are more fragile during the deregulation of the banking industry.

Recent scandals have brought rankings to the forefront of the legal profession. Several of the most prestigious academic institutions have withdrawn from being ranked, citing the problematic nature of the rankings. However, rankings persist for both legal academics and practice, and there is substantial sentiment to improve the methodologies, with little detail as to how to improve. In this paper, we rank law firms on their clients’ IPO performance. We focus on the most relevant outcomes: litigation, first-day returns, disclosure, and legal fees. The focus on these measures provides benefits relative to other methodologies, which typically focus on inputs or size-related characteristics. Namely, this ranking is less manipulable and more accurately captures performance metrics that matter most to clients’ shareholders. Our rankings control for observable and unobservable deal characteristics, which helps ensure we capture law firm quality, not client traits. With the rankings based on legal fees, potential clients can compare the benefits of a particular law firm (e.g., lower litigation or higher selling prices) against the additional cost of hiring a higher-quality law firm. Hence, our rankings allow for a value-for-the-money comparison of law firms for clients selling shares in an IPO.

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) have recently gained prominence in global markets and feature among the world’s most influential enterprises. The aim of this research project is to analyse the international norms in force regulating whether SOEs are considered state or non- state actors, and their conduct state or non-state conduct, the interpretation and application of these norms by adjudicators in different international regimes, and to provide alternative prisms through which these rules and decisions can be assessed and re-thought by political actors. I show that, in relation to SOEs, the concepts ‘state and ‘act of state’ have been ascribed diverse meanings by adjudicators and other international actors, who have employed legal standards with divergent wording and thresholds when dealing with similar questions. I argue that the fragmented meaning of these terms should be understood, in part, as a result of the inherent malleability of these terms and the different expert vocabularies employed across regimes. It is exhibited that adjudicators in the international trade and investment regimes are more inclined towards piercing the corporate veil of SOEs, potentially evidencing the existence of biases against SOEs, which are perceived as inherently economically inefficient and politically motivated actors in an indiscriminatory manner. In the last chapter, I introduce alternative lines of thought regarding the regulation of SOEs in international law. I suggest that, instead of engaging in theoretical discussions on the proper delineation between the public and the private sector, it is more useful to focus on the distributional impact of international rules on various actors, especially on developing and emerging economies where the presence of SOEs is very high. Such alternative prisms of analysis open paths for future research and practice, with the goal of designing an international economic order that incentivises institutional experimentation in the pursuit of economic development and distributional equity.