Bibliographie sélective OHADA

A Tese aborda a reparação dos danos morais por ricochete no Direito Civil brasileiro a partir de perspectiva histórica, empírica e comparada. Objetiva-se contribuir para a definição de critérios da reparação sob dois aspectos: a legitimidade para postulação do ressarcimento e a quantificação do dano. Para tanto, investiga-se a construção da responsabilidade civil por danos morais por ricochete nos ordenamentos jurídicos francês, português e alemão e na jurisprudência de cada país e, depois, examina-se o histórico desta reparação no Direito Civil brasileiro. Em seguida, analisa-se o enfrentamento dos temas centrais pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal e pelo Superior Tribunal de Justiça, em virtude de na jurisprudência verificar-se a tentativa de definição de alguns parâmetros a regerem a reparação dos danos extrapatrimoniais por ricochete. Avalia-se os conceitos e fundamentos legal, doutrinário e jurisprudencial deste tipo de dano e os riscos e vantagens de estabelecer-se, no Brasil, critérios restritivos de indenização, à semelhança do que ocorre nos ordenamentos português e alemão. Por fim, conclui-se que não há critério efetivamente firmado no STJ a respeito da definição da legitimidade para postulação do ressarcimento, pelo que se sugere a adoção de modelo restritivo a partir da utilização da ordem de vocação hereditária estabelecida no artigo 1.829 do Código Civil, à semelhança dos modelos português e alemão, a fim de garantir segurança jurídica e estabilidade conceitual ao tema. A respeito da quantificação do dano, propõe-se não a utilização de tarifação, mas de regulação da quantificação, observando-se os elementos seguintes: (a) possibilidades econômico-financeiras de ofensor e vítima reflexa; (b) grau de culpa do ofensor; (c) extensão do dano reflexo; (d) quantidade de vítimas reflexamente atingidas pelo mesmo evento danoso; e (e) proximidade do vínculo de parentesco entre vítima direta e vítima reflexa.

La mondialisation de l'économie de marché ouvre de nouveaux horizons aux entreprises commerciales en étant source de croissance, d'emplois et de prospérité, même si elle engendre aussi des risques, en particulier lorsque les entreprises développent des activités dans des zones en proie à des conflits armés, internationaux ou internes, ou dans des territoires occupés. Les entreprises sont incitées par la société civile et les organisations internationales à tenir de plus en plus compte du droit relatif aux droits de l'homme, qui s'applique tant en période de conflit armé que de paix. Le droit international humanitaire, alors même qu'il est spécifiquement conçu pour régir des situations de conflit armé, qu'il a des effets importants pour elles lorsqu'elles opèrent dans des pays qui connaissent de telles situations, leur est moins connu et fait moins l'objet d'attention par la doctrine, notamment francophone.Un certain nombre de contentieux récents ont soulevé des interrogations en la matière, tant sur le plan de la protection des entreprises par le corpus du droit international humanitaire, que sur celui de la soumission des entreprises à ces règles. Cette thèse analyse l'applicabilité du droit international humanitaire aux entreprises commerciales, à leurs salariés, leurs biens, leurs activités qui peuvent être à la fois des cibles, des victimes, des participants des conflits armés, voire des auteurs de violations du droit international humanitaire, soulevant des interrogations relatives à l'adaptation et la pertinence du DIH à ces entités.

Environmental reclamation obligations are statutory mechanisms designed to regulate environmental protection by corporate entities. Bankruptcy laws on the other hand are meant to offer insolvent corporations an opportunity to reorganize their affairs, satisfy creditors claims and make a fresh start. In practice, the application of bankruptcy laws can undermine key environmental reclamation objectives, leading many to ask whether a corporation undergoing restructuring with significant outstanding environmental reclamation obligations should be able to commence bankruptcy proceedings to satisfy creditors’ claims? By employing the doctrinal and comparative research methodologies, this research interrogates that inquiry. It argues that, despite the importance of bankruptcy protection for corporations undergoing financial distress, environmental protection should be paramount. Although sustainable finance (SF) instruments have been deployed by banks to enable creditors to mitigate environmental concerns in their investments, the persistent recurrence of environmental reclamation issues in the oil and gas sector particularly during insolvencies, underscores the need for financial investors to strengthen their investment policies to reflect best practices providing the desired protection for the environment. The research finds that, although SF and environmental, social and governance (ESG) approaches, are commendable, they are insufficient in instilling adequate regulatory impact on the environment compared to judicial control offered by the courts. The thesis concludes that whilst judicial control mechanism is not without concerns, with government’s deliberate financial policy and judicial control to complement SF and ESG efforts, ESG and SF mechanisms can be strengthened to compel greater significant influence on best practices in lending.

The transformation of international trade from conventional to digital impacts several things, including resolving international trade disputes. In order to realize an efficient and effective dispute resolution process, many countries have implemented ODR to settle international trade disputes. This study aims to analyze the implementation of ODR in various countries and examine issues with unclear guidelines based on international law. This research observes the development of ODR in Indonesia and the urgency for its implementation in Indonesia. The research is normative juridical, with a statutory and comparative approach. The results obtained in this study are model law arrangements relating to the standardization of ODR Providers aimed to protect the personal data of the parties, unification of ODR dispute resolution clauses, and formulation of national legal instruments to create legal certainty regarding ODR, including ODR proceedings, permits, and monitoring,  as well as recognition and execution process of electronic ODR decisions.

O artigo 421-A do Código Civil justifica o afastamento da presunção de paridade e de simetria dos contratos empresariais mediante a presença de elementos concretos cujo teor, natureza e efeitos não são explicitados. A disposição é, via de regra, relacionada à possibilidade de intervir em contratos marcados pela assimetria de poder de barganha entre os contratantes. Dado que é natural que haja disparidade de poder entre as partes, eventual intervenção para conter ou sancionar os efeitos da liberdade contratual exercida no âmbito de uma relação obrigacional assimétrica apenas é justificada se comprometerem valores jurídicos, razão pela se compreende que nem todo desequilíbrio de poder é e deve ser juridicamente significativo. Portanto, propõe- se o conceito de assimetria de poder juridicamente significativa a partir da interpretação sistemática dos artigos 187, 421, caput e 421-A, caput do Código Civil. O objetivo do trabalho é investigar os critérios para qualificação das práticas contratuais derivadas da assimetria de poder juridicamente significativa, bem como seus impactos no cumprimento dos objetivos da disciplina jurídica aplicável aos contratos empresariais de promover segurança jurídica e confiança aos agentes econômicos. Para alcançar o objetivo proposto, a análise foi realizada a partir de dois recortes, um geral e um específico. Como Recorte de Análise Geral, considerou-se os contratos da cadeia agroalimentar (agronegócio) firmados entre o elo produtor e o segmento a jusante. O Recorte de Análise Específico correspondeu aos contratos firmados entre os citricultores e as indústrias processadoras de suco de laranja. Como resultados, defende-se que é juridicamente significativa a assimetria de poder nos contratos empresariais quando dela resultam práticas contratuais pelas quais o agente com poder superior de barganha transfere, total ou parcialmente, custos e riscos incidentes sobre a operação econômica formalizada pelo contrato à parte com desvantagem negocial, sem que seja justificada, do ponto de vista da estrutura jurídica e/ou econômica do negócio, a ausência de contrapartida para assunção de referidos custos e riscos, comprometendo, ao menos potencialmente, o cumprimento da função socioeconômica imediata e mediata dos contratos empresariais. Ademais, a assimetria de poder juridicamente significativa compromete o cumprimento dos objetivos da disciplina jurídica de conferir segurança jurídica e confiança aos agentes econômicos atuantes em dado mercado, razão pela qual não é efetiva para lidar a contento com a problemática. A partir dos resultados, concluiu-se que são necessárias adaptações a nível de direito material e instrumental para endereçamento dos impactos da assimetria de poder juridicamente significativa, que devem ser objeto de pesquisas futuras. Article 421-A of the Civil Code justifies challenging the presumption of parity and symmetry in business contracts through the presence of concrete elements whose content, nature, and effects are not specified. This provision is generally related to the possibility of intervening in contracts characterized by an asymmetry of bargaining power between the parties. Given that there is naturally a disparity of power between the parties, any intervention to contain or sanction the effects of contractual freedom exercised within an asymmetric obligational relationship is only justified if it compromises legal values. Therefore, it is understood that not every power imbalance is, or should be, legally significant. Hence, the concept of legally significant power asymmetry is proposed based on the systematic interpretation of Articles 187, 421, caput in light of Article 421-A, caput of the Civil Code. The objective of this study is to investigate the criteria for qualifying contractual practices resulting from legally significant power asymmetry and to assess their impacts on the fulfillment of the objectives of the legal framework applicable to business contracts in providing legal certainty and trust to economic agents. To achieve the proposed objective, the analysis was conducted through two scopes, a general one and a specific one. As part of the general analysis, contracts within the agri-food chain (agribusiness) between the producer and the downstream segment were considered. The specific analysis focused on contracts concluded between citrus growers and orange juice processing industries. As a result, it is argued that power asymmetry in business contracts is legally significant when it leads to contractual practices by which the party with superior bargaining power transfers, either entirely or partially, the costs and risks associated with the economic operation formalized by the contract to the disadvantaged party, without the absence of consideration being justified from the perspective of the legal and/or economic structure of the business, thereby compromising the fulfillment of the immediate and mediate socioeconomic function of business contracts. Furthermore, legally significant power asymmetry undermines the achievement of the legal framework\'s objectives to provide legal certainty and trust to economic agents operating in a given market, which is why it is ineffective in adequately addressing the issue. The results led to the conclusion that adjustments are required within both substantive and procedural legal frameworks to tackle the problem effectively, which should be further researched.

A história moderna da humanidade vem demonstrando que jaz míope a visão de que determinado país e sua economia podem viver e sobreviver em estado de isolamento hermético ante a economia globalizada. Não é concebível que determinada sociedade possa se desenvolver sem interação com investidores estrangeiros. Mesmo em países que, por opção ideológica, há certo isolamento, vemos hoje a existência de investimentos estrangeiros, ainda que sejam originados em outros países com o mesmo viés ideológico. Desta forma, os países em desenvolvimento e, em especial para o trabalho que aqui se apresenta, o Brasil têm que compreender as possíveis estruturas jurídicas e econômicas, bem como de políticas públicas que expressam tais estruturas, para poder pretender se credenciar como atrativos destinos de investimentos estrangeiros, seja pela outorga de benefícios (diretos ou indiretos), seja pela segurança ao investidor. No Brasil, entretanto, essa atratividade deve ser sopesada com a preservação de valores fundantes de nossa Constituição, congruentes com o ordenamento jurídico nacional e, ainda, devem ser, depois de efetivado o investimento, acompanhado por um sistema que imponha transparência e solidez ao cumprimento das contrapartidas desejadas: notadamente a geração de emprego e renda e de contribuição para a criação da riqueza nacional. O ponto central do presente trabalho gira em torno dos fundamentos jurídicos para a atração e manutenção, bem como a construção de um possível sistema de aferição da solidez jurídica de políticas de incentivo ao capital estrangeiro.

La esperanza de vida en nuestro país es una de las más altas del mundo. Se estima que en treinta años la tasa de dependencia de personas mayores con necesidades de cuidados en la UE alcanzará el sesenta por ciento.Este estudio aborda las cuestiones jurídico-tributarias que plantean las "plataformas digitales de cuidados" que operan en el ámbito nacional y que tienen por destinatarios a los mayores dependientes.Estas fórmulas empresariales, además del potencial que tienen para la generación de empleo y la innovación, contribuyen a mejorar la calidad del envejecimiento, pues la oferta de servicios (cuidados de larga duración, por períodos cortos o por horas) se adapta con mayor flexibilidad a las necesidades individuales de los mayores, preservando su independencia y autonomía en todo el ciclo de la vejez. Unos cuidados que han de ser de calidad, asequibles y accesibles.Interesa, por tanto, adentrarse en los aspectos más significativos de lo que podría ser una fiscalidad de plataformas, focalizada en aquellas que actúan como intermediarias conectando a vendedores o prestadores de servicios con usuarios, y que comprende medidas concretas en el IS y el IVA, así como nuevas obligaciones de suministro de información (DAC 7). En esta categoría de plataformas se reconocen la mayoría de las que operan en el ámbito de los cuidados. Y, puesto que se trata de un sector empresarial en crecimiento, presenta especial interés conocer en qué medida se pueden aprovechar las medidas fiscales introducidas para el fomento de las empresas emergentes (startups), así como para la atracción de inversión privada y la captación de talento extranjero.

Esta dissertação parte da seguinte indagação: a contrapartida em dinheiro no âmbito das operações de incorporação e incorporação de ações é admitida no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro? Para responder a essa pergunta, o trabalho examina, em primeiro lugar, de que forma a continuidade das participações societárias insere-se na disciplina dessas operações, constatando que a transposição dos sócios da companhia incorporada (ou cujas ações são incorporadas) para a sociedade incorporadora é tradicionalmente encarada com um traço essencial dessa modalidade de reorganização societária. Nada obstante a essa concepção, o trabalho se dedica a analisar em que medida essas operações são compatíveis com o ordenamento jurídico societário brasileiro, com o propósito de identificar se há fundamentos jurídicos a respaldar a dispensa do princípio da continuidade das participações societárias. Nesse contexto, busca identificar os riscos decorrentes da admissibilidade de operações de incorporação com pagamento em dinheiro sob a perspectiva dos acionistas das companhias envolvidas, avaliando se, diante de tais riscos, as salvaguardas oferecidas pelo ordenamento jurídico societário vigente são suficientes para endereçá-los, assinalando os pontos em que a disciplina jurídica poderia ser aprimorada e a necessidade da imposição de determinados limites à realização dessas operações. This dissertation seeks to answer the following question: is cash consideration in a merger permitted under Brazilian law? In order to answer that question, this study first examines how the participation in the equity of the surviving corporation is traditionally viewed within the legal framework of these transactions, concluding that the passage of the shareholders from the merged company (or whose shares are merged) to the surviving company is seen as an essential feature of mergers. Notwithstanding this conception, this study is dedicated to analyze to what extent such kind of merger is compatible with the Brazilian corporate legal system, with the purpose of identifying whether there are legal grounds to support its admissibility. In this context, the dissertation seeks to identify the risks arising from the admissibility of cash as consideration in mergers from the perspective of the shareholders of the companies involved in such transactions, assessing whether, in light of such risks, the safeguards provided by the current corporate legal system are sufficient to address them, pointing out where the legal framework could be improved and the need to impose certain limits on carrying out these transactions.

A presente tese tem por escopo analisar a proteção dos trabalhadores em plataformas digitais. Sob o viés específico, investiga como o Direito do Trabalho pode assumir seu protagonismo na tutela dos motoristas via aplicativos. O trabalho em plataformas digitais já é uma realidade tanto no cotidiano brasileiro quanto nos demais países. São milhares de trabalhadores espalhados por inúmeras atividades via plataformas digitais, havendo crescimento exponencial nessa seara, o que propicia oportunidades, avanços e desafios. Ocorre que, até o momento, ainda não foi definido o standard de proteção aplicáveis a esses trabalhadores, havendo vazio protetivo que gera precariedades, insegurança jurídica e controvérsias judiciais. Por tais razões, a regulação dessa nova forma de trabalho constitui desafio global. Questiona-se: qual é a proteção adequada para os trabalhadores em plataforma digital? Em busca de respostas coerentes, concebe-se que o Direito do Trabalho pode assumir sua eterna juventude, adaptar-se aos novos tempos e se reinventar para proteger também esses novos trabalhadores. A tese defende um regime jurídico moderno, compatível e pacificador, capaz de harmonizar proteção social e segurança jurídica, valor social do trabalho e livre iniciativa, dignidade da pessoa humana e meio ambiente de trabalho saudável. Essa justa medida pode ser encontrada entre a intervenção estatal mínima e a autorregulamentação das partes. Cabendo ao Estado assegurar a dignidade de todos os trabalhadores, no âmbito da livre iniciativa, identifica-se núcleo fundamental de direitos aplicáveis aos trabalhadores em plataformas digitais, levando-se em conta as transformações do mundo de trabalho; respeitada essa normativa mínima do tipo cláusula pétrea ou espaço vital e inflexível, caberá aos próprios atores sociais regular essa peculiar atividade laboral, o que confere maior efetividade, segurança jurídica e adaptação às transformações sociais. The purpose of this doctoral study is to analyze the issue of protecting workers on digital platforms. From a specific perspective, it will investigate how Labor Law can assume its leading role in protecting drivers via apps. In fact, working on digital platforms is already a reality in everyday life in Brazil and in other countries. There are thousands of workers spread across numerous activities via digital platforms, with exponential growth in this area, which provides opportunities, advances and challenges. It turns out that, to date, the protective standard applicable to these workers has not yet been defined, resulting in a protective void that generates precariousness, legal uncertainty and judicial controversies. For these reasons, regulating this new form of work constitutes a global challenge. The question is: what is the adequate protection for platform workers? In search of coherent answers, it is conceived that Labor Law can assume its eternal youth, adapt to new times and reinvent itself to also protect these new workers. It advocates the achievement of a modern, compatible and pacifying legal regime, capable of harmonizing social protection and legal security, the social value of work and free initiative, human dignity and an adequate working environment. This fair measure can be found between minimal state intervention and self- regulation of the parties. As the State is responsible for ensuring the dignity of all workers, within the scope of free enterprise, a fundamental core of rights applicable to workers on digital platforms will be identified, taking into account the transformations in the world of work. Respecting this minimum regulation of the stone clause or vital and inflexible space type, it is believed that social actors themselves will be able to regulate this peculiar work activity, which provides greater effectiveness, legal security and adaptation to social transformations.

Le financement de l’économie de nos jours se repose sur le crédit. Pour le développement de leurs activités, les débiteurs se retournent inéluctablement vers les créanciers pour l’obtention des capitaux nécessaires. Cependant, à bien des cas, ce « mariage idyllique » finit par connaître des « jours sombres » par le fait des débiteurs indélicats, posant par là même l’épineux problème du recouvrement des créances. En guise de solution à ce problème, véritable gangrène des économies, le législateur OHADA a cru devoir faire oeuvre utile en secrétant un nouveau droit des affaires en général et celui des procédures contentieuses portant sur le recouvrement des créances et les voies d’exécution en particulier. Lesdites procédures devaient assurer le recouvrement de la créance querellée en toute simplicité, célérité, à moindre coût et dans le strict respect des droits du débiteur poursuivi. Ainsi, à l’échec d’un recouvrement volontaire, il est délivré au créancier poursuivant une ordonnance injonctive sur laquelle sera apposée une formule exécutoire ; afin qu’il procède dès lors à un recouvrement forcé au travers des voies d’exécution. Cependant, une vingtaine d’années plus tard, entre les lourdeurs procédurales et leur complexité, les insaisissabilités, les immunités d’exécution, etc..., les AUPSRVE ont étalé à suffisance certaines limites, qui mettent à mal l’intérêt du créancier dans lesdites procédures. Elles sont donc à repenser notamment au travers de leur recadrage systématique. Il passerait par exemple par la cyber justice, la suppression de l’exéquatur pour une libre circulation des titres exécutoires, l’instauration de l’obligation de transparence sur ses biens imposée au débiteur, la révision de l’assiette saisissable, la relativisation et mieux la suppression des immunités d’exécution chaque fois que les actes posés seront des actes de gestion et non de souveraineté, etc. Toute chose qui pourrait assurer une meilleure prise en compte de l’intérêt du créancier comme c’est déjà le cas pour les droits du débiteur. Ce serait le prix à payer pour un décollage tous azimuts de l’économie de l’espace OHADA.

Technology-based transactions are inseparable from the routine exchange of data. These exchanges may not pose privacy problems until the movement takes extra-territorial turns thereby facing multiple levels of cross-border regulations. In the 80 s, the frequency of transfer of personal data beyond geographical boundaries in Europe precipitated the regulation of transborder data flows (TDF) beginning with the enactment of the Organization for OECD Guidelines. In Africa, the concept of TDF is more complex than usually viewed by the stakeholders and this is partly because neither the African Union nor other regional bodies have introduced legislation on TDF. Like many concepts in data protection, TDF is bereft of a generally accepted meaning. Regardless of the uncertainty, this paper approaches TDF as the transmission of personal data from one country to another country or international entity for the purpose of processing. The paper discusses some definitions of TDF as understood under African regional and national data protection legislation. In a comparative and normative approach, the paper analyses the barriers to TDF in Africa vis a vis the European experience and then concludes with recommendations for workable TDF within and outside the continent from an African perspective beginning with the harmonization of existing regional framework.

The establishment of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) has opened new avenues of research interest in International Business and International Management. However, scholarly work in this fledgling area of research has been disparate and often lacking in the assessment of core international business implications of the emergence of the AfCFTA on member states as well as non-member states. This is because, as yet, no systematic attempt has been made to explore the AfCFTA in the context of IB research, or project future IB research directions. Hence, in this paper, using the PRISMA method we have systematically identified the current published research and scholarly work on the AfCFTA and provided a robust picture of the current state of knowledge and available literature on the AfCFTA while at the same time outlining potential areas for future international business research.

L’information du consommateur est l’une des obligations légales les plus accrues en matière contractuelle compte-tenu de l’expérience des parties en cause. Cette information est nécessaire aussi bien pour la formation du contrat projeté que pour sa bonne exécution. Elle est alors contractuelle ou extracontractuelle. Ainsi, la rétention de toute information est susceptible d’engager la responsabilité du professionnel vis-à-vis du consommateur. La mise en œuvre d’une telle responsabilité nécessite une action devant aboutir à des sanctions proprement dites à l’encontre du professionnel censé être le conseiller de son co-contractant. L’Etat doit y veiller à travers la lutte contre la fraude et les pratiques de concurrence déloyale. Le consommateur et ses ayants droits, l’association des consommateurs doivent pouvoir exercer leurs droits de recours devant les organismes de protection des consommateurs et juridictions compétents. Mieux, ces derniers doivent connaître leurs droits et obligations ainsi que les textes qui les protègent dans une langue accessible afin de leur permettre de prendre des décisions conformes à leurs intérêts légitimes dans la mesure où la mauvaise information peut non seulement les induire en erreur mais porter atteinte à leur sécurité.

The Consumer Protection Act 68 of 2008 (CPA) seeks to promote the achievement and maintenance of a fair, accessible, efficient, sustainable and responsible market place for consumer products and services in South Africa. Moreover, the CPA seeks to provide an accessible, consistent, harmonised, effective and efficient system of redress for consumers. Notably, the CPA provides that the supplier should not supply or enter into an agreement to supply any goods or services at a price that is unfair, unreasonable, or unjust. This is generally aimed at combating any problems that are suffered by consumers when accessing goods and services in South Africa. Accordingly, various regulatory bodies and related role-players were established to enforce consumer rights and provide redress mechanisms to vulnerable and affected consumers. These consumer protection bodies and related roleplayers include the National Consumer Commission (NCC), the National Consumer Tribunal (NCT), provincial consumer courts, ordinary courts and other alternative dispute resolution agencies. These bodies and role-players are statutorily obliged to resolve consumer disputes in South Africa. However, there are some uncertainty challenges regarding the jurisdiction of ordinary courts and consumer protection regulatory bodies in relation to disputes that relate to the consumers’ right to fair, just and reasonable prices, terms and conditions of goods and services. This article discusses the role of the NCC, the NCT, provincial consumer courts, ordinary courts and other alternative dispute resolution agencies in the regulation of prices for goods, services and access to redress for affected consumers under the CPA. This is done to provide some recommendations that could resolve jurisdictional and regulatory challenges in relation to the price and access to goods and services under the CPA.

Le présent article a pour objet d’apporter sa contribution à la doctrine sur la régulation du commerce international des ressources énergétiques à travers une étude sur la fixation des prix du pétrole. Sous l’angle du droit international, il répond principalement à la question de savoir quels sont les facteurs juridiques qui déterminent la valeur d’échange du pétrole sur les marchés internationaux. Tout en relevant les avancées et les faiblesses de la régulation y relative, la présente étude démontre que les prix pétroliers se révèlent déterminés par des marchés parfois spéculatifs suivant les variables d’une libre concurrence dont l’instauration tend à être favorisée par une règlementation incitative. Dans le même temps, l’évolution du niveau de ces prix subit pleinement l’influence des enjeux poursuivis par l’affirmation d’une souveraineté des États qui fait obstacle à l’établissement d’une concurrence parfaite. The purpose of this article is to contribute to the doctrine on the regulation of international trade in energy resources through a study on the setting of oil prices. From the perspective of international law, it mainly answers the question of what legal factors determine the exchange value of oil on international markets. While noting the advances and weaknesses of the related regulation, this study demonstrates that oil prices are determined by sometimes speculative markets depending on the variables of free competition, the establishment of which tends to be favored by an incentive regulation. At the same time, the evolution of the level of these prices is fully influenced by the issues pursued by the assertion of State sovereignty which obstructs the establishment of perfect competition.

Efficiency is generally defined as the capacity to deliver desirable results with little effort or input. A bank cannot afford to allocate limited resources at random in a competitive market. Only once the efficiency factors have been identified can resources be allocated in a conscious and effective manner. The study investigates the determinants of technical efficiency of banks in the SADC region. The study is significant in the SADC region as the block is trying to create a robust and stable banking system. This is driven by the desire to stay away from the current global financial system volatility and the region is working to develop an integrated banking system. The results show that the banks are relatively inefficient with the level of inefficiency around 40 percent. The efficiency of the banks is determined by the level of capitalisation, size of the bank, research costs and automation of the banks. The results of the study imply that that there is great scope for the banks in the SADC region to increase their efficiency. Improved efficiency will ensure banks provide services at a lower cost to clients. The study recommends adequately capitalizing banks, increasing the asset base of the banks, investing in research and the automation of the banking systems.

A Lei de Recuperação Judicial e Falência, após a reforma de 2020, permitiu que a maioria dos credores, organizados em assembleia, possam impor medidas à empresa em recuperação judicial e aos seus sócios, nos termos do art. 56, § 4o e seguintes. Embora diversas medidas possam ser adotadas pelo plano dos credores, como é o caso das determinações de aspecto exclusivamente patrimonial e a alteração da administração da empresa em recuperação judicial, algumas providências não podem ser impostas sem que haja a anuência dos sócios, nos termos da legislação societária, como é o caso da fusão, incorporação e transformação. A capitalização dos créditos em recuperação judicial, inclusive com a alteração de controle, é expressamente admitida pela Lei de Recuperação Judicial e Falências, o que enseja, em determinados casos, o exercício do direito de retirada pelos sócios do devedor. O cálculo do recesso para fins de exercício do direito de retirada deve ocorrer mediante um critério exclusivamente patrimonial, sem que seja permitido que os sócios retirantes possam se valer da expectativa de lucratividade futura da sociedade no cálculo do valor da empresa para fins de recesso. O crédito decorrente do direito de retirada possui natureza extraconcursal e não se sujeita aos efeitos da recuperação judicial. Seu pagamento, entretanto, deve ocorrer de maneira compatível com a preservação da empresa, mediante a utilização de um percentual dos resultados futuros, sem que seja possível a venda de ativos da empresa em recuperação para pagamento dos sócios retirantes.

This study primarily aims to identify the social responsibility of Libyan and Palestinian telecommunications companies and their contributions to addressing the negative effects resulting from COVID-19. The study focuses on the companies’ efforts to alleviate the burden on the state and citizens, exploring the most significant social contributions made by these companies in response to the pandemic. To answer the research questions and test the hypotheses, the researchers employed a descriptive and analytical approach. After obtaining the necessary data, a validated and evaluated questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 53 individuals, including financial managers, internal auditors, financial analysts, and accountants working in Libyan and Palestinian telecommunications companies. The results of the study indicated that Libyan telecom companies did not contribute significantly to mitigating the negative effects of COVID-19 by activating their social responsibility roles. This conclusion is supported by the respondents' answers, which reflected a moderate degree of contribution, with a mean value of 3.08 and a relative weight of 61.69%, along with a standard deviation of 0.85 and a significance level (Sig) of 0.686. Similarly, Palestinian telecom companies also did not significantly contribute to mitigating the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic through their social responsibility roles. Respondents’ answers indicated a moderate level of contribution, with a mean value of 3.24, a relative weight of 64.85%, a standard deviation of 0.849, and a significance level (Sig) of 0.256. The study recommends that Libyan and Palestinian telecommunications companies should enhance their social roles in mitigating the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic by actively implementing social responsibility initiatives.

This study investigates the influence of remuneration on organizational performance in cooperative banks in Kiambu County, Kenya. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research explores how compensation packages, salary reviews, and employee recognition impact performance. The study utilizes a descriptive research design with structured questionnaires to gather data from 94 participants. Findings indicate a significant correlation between competitive remuneration and enhanced organizational performance. The majority ofemployees are satisfied with salary increments and recognize the positive effects of frequent salary reviews on their motivation and job satisfaction. The study also highlights the importance of recognition and praise in boosting employee morale and engagement, contributing to overall organizational success. This research is grounded in Equity Theory, which posits that fair treatment in compensation leads to higher motivation and productivity. The conclusions drawn suggest that cooperative banks should implement equitable and competitive remuneration strategies, along with regular salary reviews and robust recognition programs, to enhance performance. The study provides valuable insights for policymakers andbank managers aiming to improve organizational effectiveness through strategic human resource practices.

À lire certains professionnels du droit, le décompte du temps de travail aurait fait son temps. Les cadres ne « compteraient pas leur temps », le décompte serait lié à la « civilisation de l’usine », et plus structurellement le temps ne serait plus un étalon pertinent de mesure du travail. À ces doutes, il s’agit d’affirmer l’utilité permanente du décompte du temps de travail. La question de l’importance du décompte du temps de travail est étroitement liée à celle du rôle et de la place du temps de travail. Ces interrogations relatives au décompte du temps de travail découlent principalement de la remise en cause du temps comme outil de mesure et de limitation du travail. Au contraire, c’est en affirmant la permanence du temps à pouvoir et à devoir remplir de telles fonctions que l’intérêt et l’importance du décompte du temps de travail se révèlent. Qu’il s’agisse de mesurer ou de limiter le travail, le temps ne peut remplir ces fonctions qu’à condition d’être décompté. Autrement dit, c’est le décompte du temps de travail qui permet au temps de remplir ses fonctions de mesure et de limitation du travail. L’intérêt du décompte du temps de travail se dévoile à l’aune de la fonction, générique, du temps comme unité de conversion. Le temps constitue en effet une unité de conversion objective et universelle, qu’il s’agisse de déterminer l’engagement du salarié, de déterminer et quantifier le salaire, de protéger par un salaire minimum horaire, ou encore de garantir la protection de la santé et des temps de liberté. Or, ces fonctions de mesure et de limitation du travail sont intrinsèquement liées à la nature du contrat de travail, défini et caractérisé par la subordination du salarié à l’employeur. S’interroger sur l’importance du décompte du temps de travail consistera à questionner le rapport qu’il entretient avec l’existence, la formation et la construction du contrat de travail tel que caractérisé par la subordination. Dans cette étude, on cherche à identifier les enjeux du décompte du temps de travail, les façons d’y procéder, les difficultés rencontrées et les solutions apportées. Pour déterminer si le décompte du temps de travail est une condition au contrat de travail, il y a d’abord besoin d’examiner dans quelle mesure le décompte du temps de travail s’avère utile au regard du droit du travail. Il s’agit d’affirmer la nécessité de procéder à un décompte du temps de travail, qui découle d’une multitude d’énoncés au service desquels le décompte du temps de travail intervient. Pour apprécier si le droit positif est à la hauteur de cette nécessité, il s’agit ensuite d’évaluer l’obligation de décompter le temps de travail, et de voir comment cette obligation est appréhendée, abordée et imposée par le droit du travail. Il en ressort que le décompte du temps de travail est un élément consubstantiel de l’idée de salariat et un élément structurant du droit du travail. Et il demeure tel, même s’il est aujourd’hui attaqué. Le droit du travail s’évertue donc à imposer le décompte du temps de travail. Il s’agit de l’une de ses dimensions essentielles. D’ailleurs, même lorsqu’il ouvre des brèches dans les frontières du temps de travail, comme avec le forfait-jour, il ne réussit pas à s’abstraire totalement de la nécessité du décompte, et même du décompte horaire. Le décompte résiste partout, puisqu’il doit résister, puisqu’il en va de l’essence de la subordination et donc de l’essence de la relation de travail salarié.Le décompte du temps de travail, même s’il contesté comme le sont tous les piliers du droit du travail, demeure et demeurera. Il est au cœur de la relation de travail, et il y restera tant que le travail subordonné existera.