Bibliographie sélective OHADA

L’objectif de ce travail consiste à étudier les réformes et la performance des entreprises sénégalaises. Nous avons à cet effet utilisé l’analyse en composante principale (ACP) suivie d’une classification ascendante hiérarchique (CAH) afin de définir la structure des entreprises sénégalaises et la typologie du tissu des entreprises des pays de référence. Les résultats obtenus nous ont permis de conclure que la taille de l’entreprise est un déterminant de sa position géographique, de son âge et de la participation des capitaux étrangers. Toutefois, aucun lien n’a pu être décelé entre la taille et le régime d’exportation. Ensuite, nous avons pu déterminer que la typologie du tissu des entreprises du Sénégal est loin de refléter celle des pays de référence. De plus, à partir de la méthode de régression linéaire simple (OLS), nous avons relevé que la position géographique, le statut juridique, le transfert de technologie, l’innovation et l’ouverture aux nouveaux marchés, affectent positivement la valeur ajoutée de l’entreprise. En revanche, la taille de l’entreprise, le secteur d’activité, la participation de l’État dans le capital, les garanties sur les prêts influent négativement sur la valeur ajoutée des entreprises. Enfin, à partir de la méthodologie d’analyse comparative, nous avons tiré des leçons sur les meilleures pratiques en termes de réformes. Les résultats suggèrent que l’État du Sénégal devrait davantage s’orienter vers la réduction des coûts afférant à la création d’entreprise, notamment, les frais de notaire, les droits d’enregistrement et la réduction des taxes. L’État devrait également diminuer les coûts de l’énergie, les pertes énergétiques et se réorienter davantage vers le mix-énergétique. En outre, il pourrait améliorer l’accès aux financements à travers le renforcement de l’information sur le crédit, l’acquisition d’actifs et la règle de l’insolvabilité. L’État pourrait par ailleurs renforcer le développement des infrastructures, notamment, aéroportuaire, ferroviaire. D’autre part, la mise en œuvre d’une stratégie nationale de réformes foncières devrait lui permettre de sécuriser le foncier. L’accent devrait être mis ainsi sur l’enseignement professionnel, à l’image du Rwanda et doter le pays d’un système intégré d’informations sur l’emploi. Afin de renforcer la compétitivité des entreprises sénégalaises, l’État gagnerait à renforcer un système national intégré de qualité, et à promouvoir le “label made in Sénégal” à l’image du Rwanda et de l’Éthiopie.

Africa is often depicted in the literature as the ‘patron late to the party’ on account of her low uptake of corporate governance codes. Notwithstanding, countries that have an existing corporate governance code continue to exhibit weak corporate accountability and governance practices. This prompted a critical analysis based on a detailed review of published articles and existing codes in the African multiple-contexts. Our findings reveal that the efficacy of many codes remains very limited in terms of pragmatic outcomes whilst firms in countries that have adopted codes continue to face uneven performance and poor accountability. We conclude by urging for an understanding of the reasons underlying such results. We recommend an African led re-think (independence, ownership, board processes) of existing codes to make them more aligned with the governance needs of African firms and their complex sociocultural background. We call for further research to illuminate Africa’s actual governance experiences and necessities.

Yapay zekâ teknolojileri, insan unsurunun egemen olduğu pek çok alanı etkisi altına almaya hazırlanmaktadır. Bu alanlar arasında tıp, hukuk, eğitim, mühendislik olduğu gibi ticaret de bulunmaktadır. Yapay zekâ teknolojileri, özellikle şirketler hukukunun geleneksel yapısını kökünden sarsacak yeni bir ticari düzen ve anlayış yaratma yolundadır. Karar alma süreçlerini otomatikleştiren yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin verimliliği ve hızı, şirketlerin bu sistemleri geliştirerek pazarlamalarının yanı sıra bizzat şirket bünyelerine katarak kullanma eğilimi göstermelerine de yol açmaktadır. Bu şekilde kendi kendini besleyen bu döngü, yapay zekâ alanına sermaye yapısı güçlü şirketlerin yönelmesini ve araştırma kapsamının gittikçe genişletilmesini sağlamaktadır. Şirketlerdeki bu yönelim neticesinde, hızla gelişen yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin geleneksel şirket yapılarını etkileyebilme potansiyelinin yükselmesi olgusu, şirketler hukukunun geleceği üzerine bir inceleme yapılması gerekliliğini ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Çalışmamızda şirket yönetiminde yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin kullanımına ve bunun hukuki sonuçlarına odaklanılmakta ve konu dört temel bölüme ayrılarak incelenmektedir. Giriş bölümünde kısaca çalışmanın konusu, önemi, amacı, kapsamı ve sistematiği açıklanmakta, yapay zekâ ve şirket yönetiminin kavramsal çerçevesine yer verilmektedir. Birinci bölümde şirketler hukuku ve yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin etkileşimi incelenmektedir. Bu bölümde yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin ticaret hukuku ve şirketler hukuku ile etkileşimi incelenmekte, dijitalleşmenin şirketler hukukuna etkileri, özellikle şirket yapılarındaki ve menfaat çatışmalarındaki dönüşüm çerçevesinde ele alınmaktadır. İkinci bölümde, şirket yönetiminde yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin kullanılması bir süreç olarak incelenmektedir. Kullanım kararı alınmasından başlamak üzere, şirkete uygun yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin edinimi ve bu teknolojilerinin şirket yönetiminde kullanılma yöntemlerinin araştırıldığı bu bölümde, teknik, hukuki ve ticari başta olmak üzere ilgili beklenti ve belirsizlikler araştırılmaktadır. Üçüncü bölümde şirket yönetiminde yapay zekâ teknolojilerinin kullanılmasının hukuki sonuçları ve hukukun bu dönüşümden nasıl etkileneceği üzerinde durulmaktadır. Son bölümde ise yönetimin geleceği üzerine düşüncelerin yer altığı bir karar ağacı tasarımı içeren interaktif bir bölüme yer verilmektedir. Artificial intelligence technologies are preparing to influence many human-dominated and human-related fields. These fields include medicine, law, education, engineering as well as commerce. Artificial intelligence technologies are on the way to create a new commercial order and understanding that will shake up the traditional structure of corporate law. In particular, the efficiency and speed of artificial intelligence technologies that automate decision-making processes have led companies to tend to use these systems both by developing and marketing them and by incorporating them. In this way, this self-sustaining cycle has led companies with strong capital structures to move towards the field of artificial intelligence, and the scope of research has been gradually expanded. This orientation in companies and the high potential of rapidly developing artificial intelligence technologies to affect traditional company structures have revealed the necessity of conducting an examination on the future of company law. Our study focuses on the use of artificial intelligence technologies in company management and its legal consequences, and the subject is examined under four main sections. In the introduction, the subject, importance, purpose, scope and systematics of the study are briefly explained, and the conceptual framework of artificial intelligence and company management is given. In the first part, the interaction of corporate law and artificial intelligence technologies is examined. In this section, the interaction of artificial intelligence technologies with commercial law and company law is examined, the effects of digitalization on corporate law are discussed, especially within the framework of the transformation in company structures and conflicts of interest. In the second part, the use of artificial intelligence technologies in company management is examined as a process. In this section, where the acquisition of artificial intelligence technologies suitable for the company and the methods of using these technologies in company management are investigated, starting from the decision to use, all technical, legal and commercial expectations and uncertainties are investigated. The third chapter focuses on the legal consequences of the use of artificial intelligence technologies in company management and how the law will be affected by this transformation. In the last part, there is an interactive section that includes a decision tree design with thoughts on the future of management.

Les membres du conseil d'administration, qui sont l'organe représentatif et exécutif de la société anonyme, sont investis de pouvoirs et d'attributions étendus à tous les stades de leur activité (Code de Commerce turc art. 365, art. 374). En cas de perte résultant de la violation de ces obligations, il est inévitable que la responsabilité soit mise en avant. Ceci est principalement une conséquence naturelle de la règle générale de "l'équilibre autorité-responsabilité". Dans ce contexte, l'existence et l'effectivité des actions en responsabilité ont un rôle dissuasif pour que les administrateurs ne manquent pas à leurs obligations. D'autre part, en raison du principe de la responsabilité limitée avec les actifs contre les créanciers de la société anonyme (Code de Commerce turc art. 329/1), la protection des actifs est importante pour empêcher les créanciers de subir des pertes. De plus, la question de la responsabilité revêt une importance particulière au regard des principes de gouvernance d'entreprise. Parce que la comptabilité et la responsabilité sont les éléments clés du principe de gouvernance d'entreprise dans les sociétés anonymes qui sont les acteurs les plus importants de la vie économique d'aujourd'hui. Par conséquent, des réglementations détaillées prises en vertu du Code de Commerce turc concernant les obligations et les responsabilités des membres du conseil d'administration; en outre, les dispositions relatives aux poursuites en responsabilité ont été réglementées de manière plus détaillée et systématique et des changements importants ont également été introduits à cet égard. Dans ce cadre, un régime de responsabilité spéciale a été institué pour les administrateurs en dehors des dispositions de responsabilité générale, tandis que les articles 549 à 552 du Code de Commerce turc réglementent la responsabilité spéciale, l'article 553 et les articles suivants du Code de Commerce turc réglementent les dispositions relatives à la responsabilité générale. Ces articles sont relativement larges et complets par rapport à l'ancien code. Diverses études monographiques ont été réalisées en matière de responsabilité juridique des membres du conseil d'administration et ce sujet a été largement examiné dans les travaux sur le droit des sociétés anonymes. Cependant, l'aspect droit matériel de la responsabilité juridique a été principalement examiné dans la doctrine mais les questions liées aux actions en responsabilité et l'aspect procédurale de l'action ont trouvé une place limitée dans la doctrine. Les expressions similaires sont souvent utilisées concernant la nature du droit d'action des actionnaires et créanciers, mais l'aspect procédurale n'est généralement pas examiné avec une explication détaillée, des analyses et une caractérisation. Cependant, cette question est étroitement liée à des questions importantes telles que la relation entre les demandeurs, la litispendance, le jugement définitif, l'exécution du jugement et les caractéristiques des défenses. Dans notre étude, en raison de l'importance des actions en responsabilité et de l'augmentation du nombre des actions en pratique, nous essayons d'expliquer les caractéristiques de l'action en responsabilité (l'aspect procédural) ainsi que l'aspect du droit matériel. Cependant, notre étude n'est pas une thèse de procédure civile, c'est une thèse de droit matériel et il vise à examiner les questions liées au droit procédural en commençant par la nature de la responsabilité, l'engagement de l'action jusqu'à l'exécution du jugement définitif rendu. En conséquence, le sujet de notre étude est de décrire l'aspect de droit substantiel de l'action en responsabilité et d'examiner les domaines où la responsabilité des membres du conseil d'administration intersecter avec le droit procédural. Donc l'objectif de cette étude est l'aspect de droit substantiel de la responsabilité. Les problèmes procéduraux sont examinés dans cette perspective. La responsabilité civile des membres du conseil d'administration a été examiné conformément à l'article 553 et les dispositions suivantes. L'analyse a été faite pour les personnes qui ont le droit d'action avant la déclaration de faillite, mais pas pour les autres qui ont le droit d'action après la déclaration de faillite (administration de la faillite, créanciers). La responsabilité des membres du conseil d'administration et des dirigeants a été prise en considération. Par ailleurs, la responsabilité résultant de la fondation, les cas particuliers de responsabilité régis par l'article 549 et suivants du Code de Commerce turc, la responsabilité de contrôleur qui est régie par l'article 554 du Code de Commerce turc, l'action particulière en responsabilité régie par l'article 193 du Code de Commerce turc, l'action en responsabilité à l'égard d'un groupe de sociétés régi par l'article 202 et les dispositions suivantes du Code de Commerce turc et la révocation des personnes responsables entre elles selon leurs relations internes (action en révocation) sont exclues du champ de cette étude. Notre étude, préparée dans ce contexte, se compose de cinq grandes parties, dans la première partie, les principes de l'aspect droit matériel de l'action en responsabilité ont été examinés. Dans ce cadre, les réglementations légales antérieures et nouvelles en matière de responsabilité, les innovations apportées par la Code de Commerce turc, la base juridique (la source), le but, l'objet, l'intérêt qu'elle protège, ses éléments, sa relation avec divers actions et institutions et ses caractéristiques sont important. La source de responsabilité est basée sur la relation contractuelle entre les membres du conseil d'administration et la société, et les éléments de responsabilité sont l'illégalité, le dommage, le lien de causalité et la faute. La responsabilité des membres du conseil d'administration appartient à l'organe de gestion, est personnelle et fondée sur la faute. Sur cette note, la présomption de responsabilité a été révoquée et le fardeau de la preuve repose sur le demandeur. Alors que le principe de solidarité différenciée a été inclus dans l'article 557 du Code de Commerce turc, il a été mis l'accent sur l'application des dispositions de relation de causalité ainsi que les articles 51-52 du Code des Obligations turc. En ce qui concerne le devoir de diligence, la méthode de référence indirecte au devoir de diligence de l'employé qui était régie par l'article 320 du précédent Code de Commerce a été abandonnée par l'article 369 du Code de Commerce turc, et le devoir de diligence a acquis l'objectivité par l'adoption de « business judgement rule (agir avec diligence, bonne foi et loyauté en decision de gestion)». En outre, dans l'exposé des motifs de l'article, il a été clairement indiqué que le critère de prudence sont pertinents avec la « business judgement rule» Le devoir de diligence est lié à des éléments d'« illégalité » et de « faute ». Par conséquent, cet article signifie l'objectivation de la faute. De ce fait, la frontière entre les éléments d'illégalité et de faute est devenue encore plus incertaine. La délégation de gestion (art.367 du Code de Commerce turc) est une situation qui a un impact sur la responsabilité, avec une délégation valable il y aurait partage responsabilité primaire - responsabilité de surveillance (art. 553/2 du Code de Commerce turc). La nouvelle règle, régie par l'article 557/2 du Code de Commerce turc qui prévoit qu'une action en justice peut être intentée pour l'ensemble du dommage et qu'il peut être demandé au juge de déterminer l'indemnisation de chaque défendeur dans une même action en justice, est importante pour fixer qu'il n'est pas nécessaire que le demandeur tienne compte du principe de solidarité différenciée, et que ce principe est une règle qui ne s'adresse qu'au juge et à la décision qu'il établira. Dans la deuxième partie, les caractéristiques du droit d'intenter une action en responsabilité, les parties de l'action et les modalités d'exercice du droit d'action sont discutées. La caractéristique du droit d'action qui pourrait être exercé par d'autres personnes que la société est importante. Le résultat est étroitement liée aux questions critiques telles que les défenses qui pourraient être invoquées par les défendeurs, et avec quelles défenses pourraient être invoquées contre quel demandeur, la relation entre les demandeurs, la litispendance, le jugement définitif, l'exécution du jugement. Après une évaluation détaillée, notre opinion est que les actionnaires et les créanciers ont chacun individuellement un droit substantiel d'engager une action en responsabilité. En outre, la manière d'exercer le droit de la demande réglementé par la loi est également importante. Étant donné qu'il n'y a pas de disposition ou de déclaration restrictive dans la loi concernant la manière de demande du dommage de l'entreprise, il est également possible d'appliquer tous les recours disponibles en vertu du droit de la procédure civile, de l'exécution et de la faillite. Il est possible de demander des mesures provisoires. Bien qu'il existe une réglementation générale quant aux parties à l'action en responsabilité dans la loi, il est important d'examiner ce sujet. A cet égard, l'action intentée par l'actionnaire avant la faillite n'est soumise à aucune condition. Le montant (ratio) de l'action (la part) n'est pas important. En ce qui concerne le défendeur, les défendeurs sont comptés dans la loi. A ce propos, il est important de déterminer qui entrera dans le champ d'application du concept de « dirigeants», qui est réglementé pour être responsable aux côtés des membres du conseil d'administration. La position des personnes qui ont le droit d'action peut varier selon les avis sur la caractéristique du droit d'action. A notre avis, il n'y a pas d'obstacle légal au dépôt d'actions en responsabilité distinctes par des personnes ayant droit d'action, et cette situation ne constitue pas une litispendance. Dans la troisième partie de notre étude, les instruments de défense relatifs aux actions en responsabilité et à la question de la preuve sont abordés. Les moyens de défense sont importants en ce qui concerne l'instance pendante, la détermination de l'existence des éléments de responsabilité et le calcul du montant de l'indemnité. Parmi les conditions d'action, en tant que moyens de défense en matière de droit procédural, la décision de l'assemblée générale et l'intérêt à agir revêtent une importance particulière. À notre avis la décision de l'assemblée générale devait être recherchée comme condition d'action. En outre, bien que l'intérêt à agir soit une condition générale d'action, il prend plus d'importance pour le cette étude, car dans les actions en responsabilité l'événement qui constitue une violation de l'interdiction de l'abus de droit (art. 2 Code Civil turc). En outre, l'adoption du principe de solidarité différenciée a accru l'importance des motifs de défense individuels. Les motifs matériels de la défense peuvent être très divers, tels que le fait de ne pas être investi d'un organe de gestion, la libération, la prescription, la forclusion, l'exécution du devoir de diligence et la délégation de pouvoir. De plus, comme dans tous les procès, la question de la preuve est également très importante dans les actions en responsabilité. Cependant, un système de preuve spécial et une méthode de preuve n'ont pas été prévus en termes des actions en responsabilité. Par conséquent, des questions telles que la charge de la preuve, l'objet de la preuve, l'échelle de la preuve et les preuves propres doivent être déterminées en tenant compte des caractéristiques spécifiques de l'action en responsabilité, et cela a été examiné dans ce cadre dans notre étude. Dans le quatrième chapitre, le déroulement du procès, le jugement et l'exécution du jugement sont expliqués. En particulier, l'accent mis sur le lien de causalité et l'acceptation du principe de solidarité différenciée avec de nouvelles dispositions obligent le juge à procéder à un examen précis. Dans ce contexte, des questions telles que l'impossibilité du contrôle d'opportunité, la mise en œuvre du principe de solidarité différenciée et la prise en compte de la situation des responsables, qui ne sont pas parties au procès, sont les aspects originaux de la procédure. L'effet du jugement à la fin de l'action est également un sujet discuté dans la doctrine. À notre avis, le jugement ne constituera pas res iudicata (l'autorité de la chose jugée) pour les autres actions en responsabilité et les actions en révocation. Cependant, il convient de noter que l'effet de l'intervention en cas de dénonciation d'instance et d'intervention accessoire, pourrait être important en termes d'action en révocation, et de fait, il peut avoir un effet plus important que res iudicata. Une autre question importante est celle de savoir qui a le pouvoir d'exécuter le jugement et les possibilités dans cette question. Le point le plus prénant ici est que le droit de réclamation de l'actionnaire (le demandeur) comprend le pouvoir d'exécuter le jugement, mais le paiement perçu au stade de l'exécution doit être versée à la société. Dans le cinquième chapitre, quelques situations particulières liées aux actions en responsabilité sont examinées. Dans ce contexte, il a été analysé que l'effet du recouvrement partiel ou total du dommage sur les autres parties responsables dans le cadre de diverses possibilités, la transaction et le désistement d'action (la validité et caractère obligatoire), l'examen de la libération d'une ou plusieurs des personnes responsables au sens de l'article 166/3 du Code des obligations turc, la pertinence de la révocation dans le cadre de l'action en responsabilité et les opérations collusoires de l'entreprise dans le cadre de l'action en responsabilité. Notre avis a été indiqué en conjonction avec l'analyse des arguments de la doctrine et de la pratique sur ces questions.

This subject matter of this work is the prohibition of competition with the company of members of board of directors in joint stock companies under art. 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. The prohibition of competition is a limitation on the commercial activities and the freedom of competition of a restricted party who has access to information, means or resources due to the legal relationship between parties which grant the restricted party a leverage in competition with the other. The core idea underlying the prohibition of competition is the necessity to protect the party benefiting from this prohibition against competitive activities of the restricted party. The prohibition of competition bans the restricted party from establishing competition with the party benefiting from the prohibition through competitive actions, ultimately from becoming the competitor of the beneficiary. The said competition relationship will occur in the event the services or products serving the same or similar needs are provided to the entirety or part of the same customers or customer group. Board members in joint stock company, having the prevailing right of access to all information and resources of the company leads to the risk that it may use this power for its own or other parties' benefit instead of that of the company. Hence, the prohibition of competition on board members regulated under article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code is one of the concrete examples of the duty of loyalty of a board member towards the company aiming to prevent such usages prioritizing the benefit of the member or of a third person over that of the company. The focal point of this work is the determination of the scope of application and conditions of this prohibition as a whole. The first chapter of this thesis aims to convey the conceptual basis of the prohibition of competition. In this scope, we first assessed the economic and legal basis of competition. Economic competition is the race/competition of two or more market actors in a specific market in order to engage in a transaction with its counterparty in the market through offering better prices, conditions, goods or services in order to be superior from its competitors. However, the intention to supersede its competitors and the efforts for this purpose may result in the misuse of the right to compete or in an act limiting or eliminating the competitive environment. The Republic of Turkey provides for a constitutional protection over a person's right to engage in commercial activities and, although not expressly regulated, right to compete. However, as is the case for all rights and liberties, the right and liberty to compete cannot be exercised without any limitation. Second, the scope of the prohibition of competition is assessed. In this regard, we tried to determine the elements of the prohibition of competition, its definition, and its legal categorization. Moreover, a comparison of the prohibition of competition with the provisions governing unjust competition aiming to establish honest and undisrupted competition as well as with the rules of Competition Law aiming to prevent disruption of competition through restrictive actions is provided in order to specify the prominent characteristics of the prohibition of competition. Third, the attributes of the provisions governing the prohibition of competition are assessed. Provisions governing prohibition of competition which do not relate to the public order but to the internal relations of parties, and which serve the personal benefit of the beneficiary, are not of a peremptory nature. The prohibition of competition, which materially limits the liberty of engaging in commercial activities protected under the constitutional law, is of an exceptional nature and hence the provisions governing the prohibition of competition need to be construed in a limited manner. Fourth, the prohibition of competition can be regulated in the letter of a contract through mutual agreement thereon by its parties, or the legislator occasionally provides for a legal provision governing the prohibition of competition by attributing a special importance to this prohibition with respect to a specific relationship between the parties. Last, in this first chapter, we identify the reflections of this prohibition of competition within the scope of the Law of Obligations, and the Law of Corporations. The second chapter of this work takes into consideration the reasons of regulating a prohibition of competition on board members, and its scope of application regarding the persons concerned. In this context we first broadly assessed the position of the board of directors, board members and affiliated commercial auxiliaries in a company. Then, the legislative provisions respectively of German Law, Swiss Law and Turkish Law governing the board members' prohibition of competition are specified. While in German Law, just as is the case in Turkish law, the prohibition of competition of board members is stipulated in § 88 of the German Stock Corporation Act, the Swiss Law does not regulate this prohibition of competition of board members with a statutory provision, nonetheless, this prohibition is accepted by the scholars. Thereafter, the reason for regulating the prohibition of competition of board members is assessed. In this scope, the duty of loyalty of a board member arises from the legal relationship between the member and the corporation being based on the principle of trust. The member must refrain from conflicting its interests with the interests of the corporation, in other words, from conflict of interests, due to its duty of loyalty. When the member engages in competition with the company, the interests of the company and the board member conflict with each other. The member is in a considerably advantageous position in this conflict compared to the company, due to the information and resources to which it has access thanks to its position within the company. For this reason, the duty of loyalty aiming to prevent the conflict of interest between the company and the member lies at the basis of the board member's prohibition of competition. Lastly, in this chapter, the persons subject to the prohibition of competition pursuant to article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code are identified. In this respect, the members of the board of directors as well as persons to whom management authorities are delegated fall within the scope of the ratione personae of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. The commercial representatives and commercial proxies of a company are prohibited from competition pursuant to the prohibition of competition regarding commercial auxiliaries pursuant to article 553 of the Turkish Code of Obligations. Whereas a shareholder is not subject to the prohibition of competition with the company; this prohibition may only be regulated by a contract subject to the Law of Obligations. Furthermore, when evaluating the prohibition of competition of shareholders, whether the shareholder has a duty of loyalty to the company has been assessed under German Law, Swiss Law and Turkish Law. The third chapter of this work sets forth the scope of application of the prohibition of competition of board members with respect to its subject matter, place, and time. In order for a board member to violate the prohibition of competition with the company, the member must engage in an activity competing with the company. Pursuant to the first paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code, two types of competitive actions of board members are banned. The first type is the member engaging in an action which is a commercial transaction that falls within the scope of the field of activity of the company, on behalf of itself or a third party. Accordingly, all kinds of acts and actions of the member realized on behalf of itself or third parties which fall within the scope of activity of the corporation would constitute the breach of the prohibition. The scope of this prohibition also encompasses joining the managing body of another corporation. Furthermore, depending on the specifics of a concrete case, the same member being an employee of a competitor corporation under a service contract, or providing consultancy services or extending facilities to a competitor, or benefiting from a job opportunity which belonged to the company may also be construed to be within the scope of the prohibition of competition. The second type is the member being engaged as a partner with unlimited liability in a corporation engaging in the same types of commercial activities. In this regard, if a member becomes a partner of an ordinary partnership or a collective corporation, or a partner with unlimited liability of a commandite corporation, which engages in activities that fall within the scope of activities of the joint stock company, the prohibition will be breached. The prohibition of competition of the board member with the company may be lifted by an authorization granted by the general assembly pursuant to article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. This permission to compete to be granted to a board member may be in the form of a prior approval or a later acknowledgement (ratification), in an expressed or implied manner. As a result of the member being permitted to compete, article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code will no longer apply even if the member engages in activities in competition with the company. The prohibition to compete of the board member lasts for the duration of the board membership. Once the membership ends, the parties must conclude an agreement in order to continue the prohibition of competition. The said agreement regarding the prohibition of competition will be subject to form requirements to be valid. Pursuant to the liberty of contract inherent in the Law of Obligations, the parties may freely execute an agreement regarding the prohibition of competition, provided they comply with the provisions in paragraph 2 of article 23 of the Civil Code or article 26 and first paragraph of article 27 of the Turkish Commercial Code. The prohibition to compete of board members is valid as long as they execute the activities of the company, and within the geography where the clientele of the corporation is located. The fourth and last chapter of this work is devoted to the consequences of breach of the prohibition to compete by a board member. If a member of the board of directors violates this prohibition, the consequence of this breach is regulated in the first paragraph of art. 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. Accordingly, the joint stock company is granted with certain elective rights. Such that, primarily the company may request compensation from the member in breach of the prohibition of competition. Second, it may be requested that the transaction is deemed concluded on behalf of the joint stock company, third, that the benefits arising from the agreement the member concludes on behalf of third parties belong to the joint stock company. In its request for compensation, the joint stock company must prove the action of the board member violating the prohibition of competition, that the corporation suffered losses from this activity, and the causal link between this activity and the loss of the company. In its request for the transaction to be deemed concluded on its behalf, the company requests for the economic consequences of the transactions the member concluded in violation of the prohibition of competition on its behalf. In its request for the benefits arising from the agreement, the company requests that benefits arising from the agreement the member concluded on behalf of third parties are left to itself. At this point, we materially benefited from the German doctrine and jurisprudence in explaining the claims requesting that a transaction is deemed concluded on behalf of the company and that the benefits from the transactions are left to the company. These rights granted in the first paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code are not cumulative but elective. Pursuant to the second paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code, the authority to chose one of the elective rights granted to the company belongs to the members of the board of directors, excluding the member having violated the prohibition of competition. The third paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code regulates a dual prescription period of three months and one year. These periods are with respect to the exercise by the company of its elective right to make a claim. The first is the period of three months whose commencement will be determined based on the knowledge by other members that an action subject to the prohibition of competition is realized or that a board member joined another corporation. The second period is the period of one year commencing from the realization of the action violating the prohibition to compete. This one-year period is independent from other members' knowledge that the prohibition to compete has been breached. The corporation may raise other claims against the member violating the prohibition of competition which are not stipulated under article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code. Accordingly, the corporation may request that the member violating the prohibition of competition through joining a competing corporation as a partner with unlimited liability or joining the managing body of a competitive corporation resigns from this corporation or managing body. Further, the company may dismiss the member violating the prohibition of competition from board membership. Again, the company may initiate a lawsuit to cease the ongoing violation of the prohibition of competition by a board member, or a lawsuit of preclusion prior to probable breaches which have not yet occurred. In this chapter, lastly, the fourth paragraph of article 396 of the Turkish Commercial Code is assessed. This paragraph regulates that provisions governing liability of the members of the board of directors are reserved. This is a new provision which was not present in the abrogated Turkish Commercial Code no. 6762, newly introduced under the Turkish Commercial Code. In this context, we tried to determine the purpose and characteristics of this provision and concluded this work.

Klasik anlamdaki şirketten çıkarma düzenlemeleri, "haklı sebep" temeline dayanmaktadır. Bu düzenlemelerin en tipik özelliği, düzenlemiş oldukları çıkarma hakkı ile şirketin feshi kurumu arasında bir bağlantıya yer vermiş olmalarıdır. Bu bağlantı, haklı sebebe dayalı çıkarma düzenlemelerinin hizmet ettiği birincil amacı da ortaya koymaktadır: Şirketin devamlılığını sağlamak suretiyle ortaklar arasındaki menfaatler dengesi korumak. Türk hukukuna 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu ve 6362 sayılı Sermaye Piyasası Kanunu ile kazandırılan "squeeze-out" müessesesi ise daha farklı bir kuramsal temele dayanmaktadır. Bu müessese ile, şirkette genellikle %90-95 arasında nitelikli bir pay ve/veya oy oranına ulaşmış olan hâkim pay sahibine, azınlığın paylarını herhangi bir sebep göstermeden iktisap edip, onu şirketten çıkarma hakkı tanınmıştır. Böylece çıkarmanın ekseni, "haklı sebep" olgusundan "hâkimiyet" olgusuna kaymıştır. Kanun koyucuların bu şekilde bir çıkarma hakkını öngörmelerindeki temel sebep ise kurumsal nitelikte bazı amaçları gerçekleştirmek isteyen hâkim konumdaki pay sahiplerine bir imkân sunmaktır. Tezimizde, klasik anlamdaki çıkarma müesseselerinin dayanmış olduğu kuramsal temelden ayrılan "squeeze-out" kurumunun kuramsal temeli, düzenlemenin hangi amaçlarla öngörüldüğü meseleleri ele alınmakta; bu bağlamda, kurumun karşılaştırmalı hukuktaki ne şekilde düzenlendiği, kurumun ortaya çıkardığı sorunlar ve bu sorunların çözümüne yönelik önerilere yer verilmektedir. The classic rules designed for exclusion of a partner has a simple theoretical basis: A/an justified/objective reason (or in other words "good cause"). The most typical feature of these rules is they build a bridge between the exclusion right and the dissolution of the company. This bridge also shows the the primary purpose served by these rules which is to maintain the balance of interests among the partners by ensuring the continuity of the company. In comparison with the classical rules, the "squeeze-out" rules which have been introduced into Turkish law with the Turkish Commercial Code No. 6102 and the Capital Markets Law No. 6362, have a different theoretical basis. The controlling shareholder who has reached a qualified percentage of capital and/or voting rights (usually %90-95), has been granted the right to acquire the minority's shares without asserting any justified reason and exclude him from the company. Thus the idea behind the exclusion has been changed from "good cause" to the "dominance/control". The main reason for designing such an exclusion right is to provide an opportunity to the controlling shareholders trying to achieve institutional objectives in the company. In our thesis, the theoretical basis of the "squeeze-out" rules and the reasons for designing such a new exclusion right will be examined within the framework of other squeeze-out rules in comparative law. Within this context, the most common problems in squeeze-outs and suggestions for solving these problems are analyzed.

İlişkili taraf işlemlerine ilişkin özel düzenlemelerle şirketin varlıklarının ilişkili taraflara aktarılması ve şirketin ve şirketin bütün menfaat sahiplerinin hâkim pay sahipleri ve yöneticiler tarafından sömürülmesinin engellenmesi amaçlanır. Bu amaçla ilişkili taraf işlemleriyle ilgili Sermaye Piyasası Kanunu'nda etraflıca bir düzenleme getirilmiş ve önemli bazı işlemler için prosedür öngörülmüştür. Çalışmamız, esaslı düzenleme Sermaye Piyasası Kanunu'nda yer aldığı için bu düzenleme temel alınarak şekillendirilmiştir. Ancak sadece halka açık şirket değil; halka kapalı şirketler yönünden de konu incelenmiş, ilişkili taraf işlemi sayılabilecek Türk Ticaret Kanunu'nda ve diğer kanunlarda yer alan diğer düzenlemelere de yer verilmiştir. Tez dört bölümden oluşmaktadır. İlk bölümde ilişkili taraf işlemi kavramı genel olarak açıklanmış, ilişkili taraf işlemleriyle ilgili düzenlemelere neden ihtiyaç olduğu hususu ortaya koyulmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu kapsamda benzer kavramlarla karşılaştırılmış ve Avrupa Birliği ve çeşitli ülkelerde düzenlemeler incelenmiştir. Nihai olarak Türk hukukunda ilişkili taraf işlemlerinin tarihsel sürecine yer verilmiştir. İkinci bölümde yasal düzenlemelerdeki ilişkili taraf ve ilişkili taraf işlemi kavramı ele alınmıştır. Üçüncü bölümde ise ilişkili taraf işlemleriyle ilgili Sermaye Piyasası Kanunu, Türk Ticaret Kanunu ve bazı özel kanunlarda yer alan düzenlemeler incelenmiş, ilişkili taraf işlemleri için öngörülen prosedürel korumalar açıklanmıştır. Dördüncü bölümde ise hukuka aykırı ilişkili taraf işlemlerinin sonuçları incelenmiş ve ilgililerin sorumluluğuna yer verilmeye çalışılmıştır. Special regulations regarding related party transactions aim to prevent the transfer of the assets of the joint stock company to the related parties and thus prevent the exploitation of all the stakeholders of the company by the controlling shareholders and managers. For this purpose, a comprehensive regulation has been introduced in the Capital Markets Law regarding related party transactions and a procedure has been envisaged for some significant transactions. Since the main regulation is contained in the Capital Markets Law, our thesis has been shaped based on this regulation. However, this thesis has not examined the subject only for public companies; it has also examined it in terms of non-public companies, and other regulations in the Turkish Commercial Code and other laws, which can be considered as related party transactions. The thesis consists of four parts. In the first part, the concept of related party transactions is explained in general and the reason for the need for regulations regarding related party transactions is tried to be revealed. In this context, related party transactions have been compared with similar concepts and the regulations in the European Union and various countries have been examined. Finally, the historical process of related party transactions in Turkish law is examined. In the second chapter, the concept of related party and related party transactions as defined in legal regulations is discussed. In the third section, the regulations contained in the Capital Markets Law, the Turkish Commercial Code and some special laws related to related party transactions are examined and the procedural protections provided for related party transactions are explained. In the fourth chapter, the results of unlawful related party transactions are examined and the liability of the related parties is tried to be included.

Anonim ortaklıkta her pay sahibi genel kurulda, yönetim kurulundan şirketin işleri; denetçilerden ise denetimin yapılma şekli ve sonuçları hakkında bilgi alma talebinde bulunma hakkına sahiptir. Ayrıca her pay sahibinin şirketin ticari defterlerini ve yazışmalarını, sorusunu ilgilendiren kısımları ile sınırlı olarak inceleyebilme hakkı bulunmakla birlikte, bunun için genel kurulun açık izni veya yönetim kurulunun bu hususta kararı gereklidir. Pay sahibinin bilgi alma ve inceleme hakkının reddi, talep edilen bilginin şirket sırlarının açıklanmasına veya korunması gereken diğer şirket menfaatlerinin tehlikeye girmesine neden olabilecek ise söz konusu olabilir. Bilgi alma ve inceleme talebinin cevapsız bırakılması, haksız olarak reddedilmesi, ertelenmesi veya pay sahibinin kanunda düzenlendiği şekilde bilgi alamaması halinde, hakkın açılacak bir dava ile mahkeme aracılığıyla kullanılması da mümkündür. Çalışmamız dört bölümden oluşmaktadır. İlk bölümde bilgi alma ve inceleme hakkının genel nitelikleri ile karşılaştırmalı hukuktaki düzenlenme şekli; ikinci bölümde hakkı etkileyen ilkeler ve hakkın düzenlenme amacı; üçüncü bölümde bilgi alma ve inceleme hakkının kullanılması ve hakkın sınırları; dördüncü ve son bölümde ise hakkın ihlalinin hukuki sonuçları ele alınmıştır. At the general meeting, any shareholder of a joint stock company is entitled to information from the board of directors on the affairs of the company and from the external auditors on the methods and results of their audit. Also the company ledgers and business correspondence, limited to the parts about the question may be inspected only with the express authorisation of the general meeting or by resolution of the board of directors. It may be refused where providing it would jeopardise the company's trade secrets or other interests warranting protection. If the request for information and examination is left unanswered, unfairly rejected, postponed or if the shareholder is unable to obtain information as regulated in the law, it is also possible to exercise the right through a lawsuit to be filed. Our study consists of four parts. In the first part, the general characteristics of the right to information and examination and the way it is regulated in comparative law; in the second part, the principles affecting the right and the purpose of regulation of the right; the exercise of the right to receive and review information and the limits of the right in the third part; In the fourth and last chapter, the legal consequences of the violation of the right are discussed.

Bu çalışmanın temel amacı şirketler topluluğunda yer alan halka açık şirketlerin topluluk şirketleri ile ortak nakit ve hizmet kullanımına yönelik işlemlerinin sermaye piyasası mevzuatı açısından sınırlarının ve hukuki sonuçlarının tespit edilmesidir. Bu doğrultuda sermayenin oluşturulması ve malvarlığının korunması kuralları kapsamında ortak nakit kullanımı uygulamalarının sınırları, ilişkili taraf işlemlerine ilişkin düzenlemeler ve örtülü kazanç aktarımı yasağı çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. İlaveten, şirketler topluluğunda maliyet tasarrufu sağlayan ve topluluğun ortak stratejiler çerçevesinde yönetilmesi bakımından gerekli olan ortak hizmetler nedeniyle yapılan ödemelerin tutarlarının belirlenmesine ilişkin esaslar örtülü kazanç aktarımı yasağı bağlamında ele alınmıştır. Son olarak, hukuka aykırılığa yol açan ortak nakit ve hizmet kullanımı uygulamalarına yönelik Sermaye Piyasası Kurulu'nun müdahale yetkileri ve şirketler topluluğunda hâkim şirketin bağlı şirketin kaybını denkleştirebilmesi olanağının halka açık şirketlerde uygulama alanı bulmasının hukuken hangi hâllerde gündeme gelebileceği irdelenmiş ve halka açık şirketlerin dâhil oldukları şirketler topluluklarında ortaya çıkan menfaat çatışmalarının dengelenmesine yönelik değerlendirme ve düzenleme önerilerinde bulunulmuştur. The main purpose of this study is to determine the legal limits and consequences of the shared use of cash and services within corporate groups for publicly held companies' in relation to capital markets legislation. In this respect, the legal limits of transactions which enables sharing cash among group companies with respect to rules on formation and protection of capital of publicly held companies is reviewed within the context of related party transactions and cases which may result in disguised profit distribution is evaluated. Additionally, the use of shared services in corporate groups which provides significant savings and is necessary for developing common strategies is examined in order to determine which principles must be adhered to while charging for these services with regard to the ban on disguised profit distribution. Furthermore, Capital Markets Boards' intervention powers regarding the shared use of cash and services which results in violation of the law is evaluated and the parent company's opportunity of balancing the disadvantages of the subsidiary is assessed for publicly held companies. Finally, legislative amendments have been proposed in order to balance the conflicts of interest which arises where a publicly held company is part of a corporate group.

Les entrepreneurs et chefs d’entreprise musulmans sont voués à évoluer dans leur vie entrepreneuriale : création ou développement de leur activité. Mais afin de démarrer ou de s’agrandir, le chef d’entreprise a souvent besoin d’un prêt afin d’investir dans des outils et produits dans le but de « passer à la vitesse supérieure ». Mais du fait qu’il n’existe toujours pas de prêt halal pour ces personnes, celles-ci sont vouées à rester dans le domaine des TPE et de l’artisanat. Le stade supérieur, bien que le marché leur soit visible et atteignable, leur paraît comme un plafond de verre impossible à briser sans prêt qui convienne à leur éthique. Il convient ainsi d’étudier les instruments juridiques en droit musulman afin d’en déduire la latitude octroyée aux musulmans d’Occident pour cette situation. Cela permettra de confronter ces avis à la législation en vigueur en droit des sociétés, s’agissant entre autres de la constitution de l’apport afin de créer une société.

Os contratos de fusões e aquisições no direito brasileiro têm apresentado como técnica de diferimento temporal entre a celebração do acordo global (assinatura, signing) e o adimplemento da obrigação típica (fechamento, closing), uma estrutura contratual originária do common law, resultante de interações entre as seções de cláusulas de condições precedentes (conditions precedents), obrigações de fazer e não-fazer antecedentes ao fechamento (covenants prior to closing) e declarações e garantias ( representations e warranties). A presente tese busca analisar as peculiaridades do transplante dessa técnica ao sistema jurídico brasileiro, a fim de qualificar juridicamente as cláusulas transplantadas bem como identificar os efeitos jurídicos de fase existente entre a assinatura e o fechamento, chamada de período interino (interim period). A primeira parte do trabalho dedica-se a uma análise abrangente da referida técnica. No primeiro capítulo é abordada a contextualização da prática em seu habitat original, a saber: os contratos de aquisição de participação acionária no direito estadunidense. No segundo capítulo, é realizada a qualificação jurídica das cláusulas transplantadas ao direito brasileiro, mediante uma análise funcional e estrutural. A segunda parte do trabalho examina os efeitos das estruturas que compõem o fechamento diferido mediante duas perspectivas. A primeira, objeto do capítulo terceiro, é a contratual. A segunda é a societária, objeto do quarto capítulo.

Le législateur OHADA a prévu que la fusion, la scission et la dissolution de la société unipersonnelle personne morale entraine la transmission universelle du patrimoine aux sociétés avec pour conséquence l’acquisition par les sociétés qui disparaissent, de la qualité d’associés des sociétés bénéficiaires dans les conditions déterminées par le contrat de fusion en ce qui les concernent. Curieusement, il ne précise aucunement la quintessence ou du moins le contenu de la notion de « transmission universelle du patrimoine ».Or dire que les fusions – scissions et la dissolution impliquent transmission universelle de patrimoine mérite d’être éclairci compte tenu de la diversité et de la spécificité des contrats et des biens que regorgent une société. Cette clarification se justifie d’une part du fait que la transmission universelle est une notion issue du droit civil et plus précisément du droit successoral1 qui pour être appliqué au droit des sociétés commerciales mérite quelques précisions au vue des formalités qui ont cours dans ces sociétés en matière de transmission et de certains contrats dont la spécificité peut rendre complexe la transmission universelle du patrimoine.

L’administration de la société anonyme est délicate. Elle exige la compétence pour les membres du conseil d’administration et spécialement des administrateurs. Ce papier se donne pour mission de s’interroger sur la prise en compte de cet élément dans leur sélection. Les résultats de la recherche démontrent que, la prise en compte de ce critère de compétence est mitigé voire tacite. On oscille entre silence et l’implicite. L’urgence d’inscrire expressément dans la loi uniforme OHADA la compétence comme critère par excellence du choix des administrateurs participe de la qualité du management, du contrôle et du rayonnement économique de la société anonyme. The management of anonymous societies is difficult. To do it, the members of administrators staff have to be competent. This paper have as aim to ask question and take in to consideration competence in the choice of administrators staff in the law. The result is competence is not take expressly. The proposition is, a legislator an obligation to insert in OHADA uniform law of society, the notion of competence like amazing sign to do the best choice of members of administrators staff. After it, we will have a quality management, a best control and economic grow of the anonymous societies.

Dans un contexte marqué par le développement durable, le législateur OHADA n’a eu de cesse d’être accablé de toutes parts pour son statisme vis-à-vis de la montée des problématiques sociétales. Au lendemain des reformes du système comptable OHADA, les problématiques sociétales ont une fois de plus raté le rendez-vous de la normalisation. Toutefois, de nombreuses entreprises continuent à publier leurs informations sociétales parallèlement à leur communication financière. A cet effet, le problème que soulève cet article est celui de la compréhension des modes de production et de diffusion des informations extra-financières en l’absence d’une réglementation en la matière. Une étude empirique de nature descriptive est menée auprès d’un échantillon de 120 entreprises diffusant leurs informations sociétales au sein de l’espace OHADA. Il en ressort que le site internet et l’implication dans le développement de la communauté locale sont apparue respectivement comme support et thème de diffusion les plus utilisés dans l’espace OHADA en matière de reporting sociétal sous la pression de certaines parties prenantes notamment les associations consuméristes, les départements ministériels en charge de l’environnement, du travail et de la sécurité sociale. In a context marked by a widespread awareness of the needs of sustainable development, the OHADA legislator has been constantly burdened on all sides for its statism to the rise of societal problems. However, After the reform of the OHADA system, sustainability problems once more did not met up with the appointment of normalization. However, several enterprises continue to publish their societal information in parallel with their financial communication. As such, the problem raised by this article is that of understanding the mode of production and disclosure of non-financial information in the absence of a regulatory framework. A descriptive empirical analysis is carried out with a sample of 120 enterprises which propagate their societal information in the OHADA zone. It reveals that internet websites and implication in the development of the local community are respectively the medium and theme of the most used disclosures in the OHADA zone with regards to sustainability reporting under the pressure of some stakeholders especially consumer associations, ministerial departments in charge of the environment labor and social security.

يُسلِط هذا المقال الضوء على الضوابط التي تضمنها القانون التجاري الجزائري، في مجال إبرام الاتفاقيات بين شركة المساهمة والقائمين بإدارتها، بغية التوصل إلى معرفة مدى نجاعتها في ضمان حماية الشركة من العواقب الناجمة عن تعارض المصالح، وذلك من خلال التعرض بالوصف والتحليل للصور والإجراءات التي أقرتها النصوص القانونية الناظمة، بالإضافة إلى ما تم اعتماده في بعض التشريعات المقارنة. وقد خلصت الدراسة إلى أن المشرع الجزائري لم يحقق توازناً فعلياً بين سلطتي الإدارة والرقابة، نظرا لاعتماده على المراقبة البعدية التي أثبتت التجارب العملية عدم فعاليتها في معالجة قصور نظرية الوكالة. The article sheds light on the regulations of making agreements between the joint-stock company and its administrators in Algerian commercial law. In order to find out their effectiveness in ensuring that the company is protected from the consequences of conflicting interests, the images and procedures which are approved by the legal texts and have been adopted by comparative legislation were described and analyzed. The study concluded that the Algerian legislator did not achieve an effective balance between the authority of administration and that of censorship, due to the reliance on posteriori control, which practical experiences have proven ineffective in addressing the deficiencies of the agency theory.

La exigencia de un balance para la realización de la fusión ha sido una constante en la regulación de esta operación societaria en el ordenamiento español, desde el RRM de 1919, pasando por las posteriores LSA de 1951 y LSA de 1989, hasta la vigente LME. Pese a tratarse de una institución jurídica de amplio recorrido histórico en la legislación española, aspectos trascendentales como su naturaleza y finalidad han sido objeto de una gran controversia y se han planteado una serie de interrogantes en relación con estos que todavía no pueden ser considerados plenamente resueltos. El régimen vigente, por un lado, mantiene previsiones normativas establecidas originalmente conforme a una concepción de la finalidad del balance de fusión ya superada, que deben ser reinterpretadas a la luz de su significación actual en el proceso de fusión. Por otro lado, se han incorporado a la regulación de la fusión preceptos derivados de las Directivas europeas que responden a planteamientos ajenos a la tradición jurídica española y requieren una interpretación cohesionadora. En la presente investigación se aborda el estudio de la regulación del balance de fusión en las sociedades de capital, dividiendo el trabajo en las siguientes tres partes: La primera parte del trabajo está centrada en el estudio de la evolución jurídica de la regulación española del balance de fusión en las sociedades de capital. Dicho análisis ha sido estructurado en función del desarrollo de la legislación societaria, pese a que otras esferas del derecho, como la legislación fiscal, o el propio desarrollo de la normativa societaria en el ámbito contable, hayan podido tener una marcada incidencia en su evolución. En la segunda parte, se analizan los aspectos sustantivos de la regulación vigente del balance de fusión. El propósito perseguido en esta es dar respuesta a las cuestiones que se plantean en torno a la naturaleza y función del balance en el seno del proceso de fusión. Tales cuestiones, en sí mismas, constituyen los principales problemas interpretativos que suscita la actual regulación. Pero, además, las conclusiones que se alcancen servirán de base para el posterior análisis del conjunto de requisitos formales del balance que deben seguirse para la aprobación y ejecución de la fusión. En la tercera parte, se examinan pormenorizadamente los aspectos formales de la regulación del balance de fusión en la LME. Los capítulos que la componen se establecen atendiendo a las distintas fases del proceso por las que debe transcurrir la modificación estructural. De modo que se marca un recorrido que comienza con la formulación del balance de fusión, en la fase preparatoria, y concluye con la formalización e inscripción de la operación y la posibilidad de impugnar el balance.

L’actionnariat n’est pas l’apanage des personnes privées. L’Etat actionnaire est devenu une réalité manifeste. Lorsqu’il est le seul à détenir les titres sociaux d’une société, le droit sénégalais qualifie celle-ci de société nationale pour lui appliquer un régime dérogatoire. Se pose alors la question de l’articulation entre un tel régime et celui posé par l’OHADA. Quel droit pour la société nationale ? Réceptacle de deniers publics, la société nationale est-elle appréciée comme une simple société commerciale ? Shareholding is not the prerogative of private individuals. The State as shareholder has become an obvious reality. When it is the only one to hold the shares of a company, Senegalese law qualifies it as a national company in order to apply a derogatory regime to it. This raises the question of the articulation between such a regime and that of OHADA. Which law for the national company? As a recipient of public funds, is the national company appreciated as a simple commercial company?

El derecho de separación constituye uno de los mecanismos legales alternativos y efectivos para proteger al socio minoritario disconforme con el acuerdo de reparto de dividendos en las sociedades de capital cerradas en España. La mayoría distribuye dividendos encubiertos desleales, destina los beneficios sociales a reservas o consigna a dividendos una cantidad inferior al mínimo legal. Sin embargo, la acción de impugnación de estos acuerdos es insuficiente para tutelar al socio minoritario e impedir la reiteración de estas conductas. En el año 2011 la Ley de Sociedades de Capital incorporó el derecho de separación del socio minoritario con causa en la limitación de su derecho al dividendo. En diciembre del año 2018, la modificación de este precepto equilibró los intereses entre la mayoría y la minoría con prevalencia del interés social para proteger el tejido empresarial en tiempos difíciles. Por eso, esta tesis doctoral analiza los problemas interpretativos funcionales y sistemáticos de este particular derecho de separación y obtiene tres descubrimientos esenciales. En primer lugar, el derecho al dividendo es un derecho concreto de crédito del socio frente a la sociedad basado en el ánimo lucrativo del contrato social. En segundo lugar, la naturaleza jurídica del derecho de separación se fundamenta en el incumplimiento del contrato social y la protección de la sociedad y del socio minoritario. En tercer lugar, este es un derecho disponible configurable estatutariamente, derogable por la mayoría y renunciable por el socio. Las conclusiones de este estudio destacan tres cuestiones principales. Por un lado, la opresión al socio minoritario resulta de la vigencia del principio de la mayoría, las restricciones a la transmisibilidad de las acciones y participaciones sociales y la inexistencia de un mercado para su transmisión onerosa. Por el otro, los presupuestos subjetivos de este derecho se circunscriben a las sociedades de capital cerradas anónimas y de responsabilidad limitada por tiempo indefinido. En especial, excluyendo a las sociedades cotizadas, con acciones admitidas a negociación en un sistema multilateral, en concurso, con acuerdos de refinanciación y a las anónimas deportivas. Finalmente, los presupuestos objetivos estriban en la existencia de cinco ejercicios desde la inscripción de la sociedad, beneficios distribuibles y beneficios en los tres ejercicios anteriores. Además, la falta de reparto del dividendo mínimo del veinticinco por ciento de los beneficios sociales legalmente distribuibles. También, incluyen a los grupos de sociedades cuando la sociedad matriz está obligada a formular cuentas consolidadas.

Even though small and medium enterprises contribute significantly to the growth of national <br>economies, they are vulnerable in their early stages and may fail. Hence younger businesses <br>are more likely to fail than more established ones because they face complex challenges that <br>may limit their viability. This is a notion established in the liability of newness framework. <br>According to the liability of newness concept, the precarious existence of emerging <br>organisations is due to difficulties in managing relationships among strangers, not quickly <br>assembling resources, and not coping with difficult environments, among other issues. All <br>these elements notwithstanding, previous literature suggests that small businesses can, and <br>sometimes do engage in techniques or approaches to help reduce the liability of newness, such <br>as raising adequate capital. This study suggests that not only is adequate capital important but <br>that the right mix of capital also results in higher solvency, thereby mitigating the liability of <br>newness. Because the various funding forms have distinct advantages and disadvantages, an <br>appropriate capital structure reduces the cost of financing while increasing the value of the <br>firm. This study also advances the idea that profitable businesses are productive and financially <br>strong, and thus nascent enterprises with high profitability can minimise the liability of <br>newness. As a result, the study sought to examine the influence of capital structure and <br>profitability on the solvency of nascent small and medium enterprises. To put the study's <br>hypotheses to the test, 1106 nascent small and medium enterprises that are registered with the <br>National Board for Small Scale Industries were sampled across three major cities in Ghana. <br>Thus, data was gathered from every member of the population. Such data, gathered from the <br>SMEs' financial statements, was submitted to preliminary screening as well as a number of <br>statistical measurements. Operationally, the dependent variable, solvency, was defined as the <br>solvency ratio, working capital ratio, and net worth. As a result, three distinct regression models <br>were developed for robustness. The study's findings broadly indicate that capital structure and <br>profitability have an influence on the solvency of nascent small and medium enterprises. The <br>study also determined that emerging small and medium enterprises should follow the principles <br>of the pecking order theory to reduce the liability of newness. These findings, if adopted by <br>SME owners, can aid in the maturation of their fledgling businesses.

This study unveils that the creation of companies in Cameroon is been regulated by the OHADA[1], law under the Uniform Act on Commercial Companies and Economic Interest Groups (UACCEIG) which says, every company must have its own Articles of Association [2]. The Articles of Association is a document that contains the internal regulation for the management of the company’s affairs. [3] The articles of association are the contracts between the shareholders and the company and among the shareholders themselves. [4] The questions raised are what are the requirements common in the Articles of Association of all companies under OHADA Law? What effect do the AOA has? The study adopted an analytical approach which has led to the finding that the AOA under OHADA, is similar to the MOA [5] in most English speaking countries, but a major difference in that UACCEIG has limited the life span of the company to 99years while under English company law, a company goes on for an indefinite period. [6] The life span of the company should not be limited due to the principle of perpetual succession. The UACC seem to have concurred with some aspects of the Common Law, making the UACC an applaudable law reform.