Bibliographie sélective OHADA

A few years ago, African contribution of the world trade was only around 2%. The investors, except those who are exploiting natural resources, never want to dare dispensing their fund in Africa. The reason of this situation was very simple. The majority of investors denounce the juridical insecurity and also the political preponderance across the African continent. With human and natural resources abundant, Africa is regarded as a continent equipped with a great potential of development. The years of independences in Africa saw being born in many States, of the organizations trying to solve these difficulties and to reinforce their capacities by the constitution of international organizations acting in all the fields. But it is only in the year 1990; some organizations appeared in the continent and knew of real rise thanks to the liberal and democratic economic policies. This article wishes to present an assessment of seventeen years implementation of the African Harmonization of Business Law Treaty of 1993. Firstly, it will describe the system from an institutional point of view and hence from a normative point of view. Secondly, during the course of this essay, there will be a focus on analysis of OHADA’s laws, its system and its potential impact. In addition, the article will concentrate on OHADA’s appropriateness in the business sector and necessary guarantees it must offer for a successful investment partnership with foreign investment.

يمكن تعريف النص الجنائي المجرم، بأنه القاعدة القانونية التي تصف جريمة ما وتحدد عقوبتها، بحيث لا تحتوي سطورها إلا على ذالك الوصف. وهذا التحديد يعنى أنها تعبر في شق الحكم منها عن التفاصيل المادية للسلوك المحظور بمقتضاه، وتعني في شق الجزاء على العقاب المستحق عن هذا السلوك إذا ما صار أمرا واقعا. ويكون ذالك برسم السلوك الإجرامي وذكر المجني عليه المباشر في هذا السلوك، والذي يكون إما شخصا طبيعيا، أو معنويا. وعلى هذا الأساس، فان تحديد النموذج القانوني للجريمة يكون بتحديد القانون لعناصر التجريم، ففعل الجاني لا يعتبر جريمة إلا إذا توفرت فيها المكونات التي يتطلبها هذا النموذج. ومن هنا يمكن أن نشير كذلك إلى أن مفهوم النص التجريمي يتسع ليشمل كافة النصوص القانونية التي تجرم الشخص المعنوي سواء كانت بين دفتي قانون العقوبات، أو بمقتضى القوانين الخاصة. وسواء كانت هذه النصوص تتعلق بجرائم عمدية، أو تحدد الإطار العام لجرائم غير عمدية، أو ما يعرف بجرائم الإهمال

Véritablement prospective, la technique est bien souvent à l'origine d'évolutions substantielles du droit. En d'autres termes, elle impacte notre environnement sociétal. Les restrictions opérées par le droit limitent les dommages moraux ou physiques résultant de l'utilisation d'avancées techniques. La conception d'une application innovante, mais également son utilisation voire sa commercialisation doivent prendre acte des normes ressortant des différentes branches de droit. En tant qu'élément structurant la société, le droit impacte ainsi la technique et ses applications. Afin de prévenir ou, le cas échéant, d'agir en vue de contrer les effets néfastes d'un événement de mer, il importe d'améliorer la surveillance et la traçabilité des navires, de connaître les risques afin de prévenir les dangers. Le développement des techniques en ce sens doit donc permettre une meilleure adaptabilité des systèmes en place. Les outils techniques peuvent permettre de pallier les difficultés inhérentes à la disparité des espaces du risque et de la menace en mer. Quand bien même le recours aux innovations techniques revêt un avantage significatif au plan de l'efficacité, la création, la commercialisation et l'usage de celles-ci doivent observer de nombreuses normes juridiques protectrice des intérêts individuels. Réglementant l'utilisation de ses applications, le droit humanise la technique et pose les limites à une interprétation extensive de faits. Il se pose ainsi en garde-fou, prévenant des prises de décisions opérationnelles inadaptées ou contraires aux droits fondamentaux.

Due to the expansion of business transaction across the globe, the private sector demands an adequate legal framework that is sufficiently clear, modern, predictable and transparent to permit investment with a sense of security. The Organisation for the Harmonisation of Business Law in Africa (Organisation pour l’harmonisation en Afrique du Droit des Affaires) is generally known by its French acronym OHADA. As long-standing idea, the foundation of the OHADA Treaty was first laid during a meeting of finance ministers of the members of the franc CFA1 area held in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, in April 1991. A group of experts, led by Senegalese Justice Keba Mbaye, was appointed to conduct a feasibility study on a form of legal collaboration designed to promote economic integration and attract investments.2 Identifying low investment as a major obstacle to economic growth, Keba Mbaye presented his report to the French-speaking African summit in Libreville, Gabon, in October 1992, recommending the creation of a supranational organization comprising the entire franc area. The recommendation was adopted and a steering committee of three experts were appointed and tasked with drafting an international instrument as well as identifying the areas of law to be harmonized. The OHADA was established through the treaty of Port Louis in Mauritius on 17th October, 19933 The treaty is open to any Member State of the Organization of African Unity (AU) as well as any other non-member of the AU invited to join with the common agreement of all the Member States.4 The OHADA has progressively become the common business law in anglophone and francophone African countries, taking the best from the civil law and the common law systems.5 The OHADA provides its Member States with 1) a single, modern, flexible and reliable business law adapted to each country’s economy; 2) arbitration as an appropriate and trustworthy way to settle disputes; and 3) an opportunity for training judges and judicial staff and ensuring their specialisation. In May 2003, the uniform OHADA business law came into force in the sub-Saharan African States of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Comoros, Congo, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Chad, Togo and later the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The OHADA Treaty secures a legal framework for the conduct of business in Africa.6 Pursuant to Article 53 of the OHADA Treaty, any member State of the African Union may become a member, if it wishes to do so.7 Many countries are currently giving active consideration to joining the OHADA common system of business law.8 Most of the countries have a French colonial heritage, with the exception of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (former Belgian colony), Guinea-Bissau (former Portuguese colony), Equatorial Guinea (former Spanish colony), and Togo and Cameroon (formerly under partly British and partly French colonial rule). French is also an official language in most of the countries and many OHADA sources are only available in French. 9 It is interesting to know that the Council of Ministers of the OHADA organisation which is the legislative organ of the organisation have adopted the following uniform business law: the general commercial laws, corporate laws and rules concerning different types of joint ventures, laws concerning secured transactions, debt recovery and enforcement laws, bankruptcy laws, arbitration law, accountability law, and law regulating contract for the carriage of goods by roads.10 The OHADA treaty established the Common Court of Justice and Arbitration (CCJA) which is a supranational11 judicial institution based in Abidjan, Ivory Coast.12 2.

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’examiner les problèmes des banques dans les pays émergents et moins développés, tel que le financement des PME et les mécanismes de gouvernance bancaire. Nouss étudions l’état de financement bancaire des PME dans un pays où les banques sont obligées d’allouer une part de leurs prêts aux PME. Nous trouvons que les grandes banques et les banques étrangères allouent moins de crédits aux PME. En utilisant un sondage que nous avons réalisé auprès des banques philippines, nos résultats montrent que le secteur des PME est perçu comme un marché rentable. Les banques sont contraintes à prêter aux petites entreprises à cause de l’opacité de ces PME. Le credit scoring et le factoring sont les techniques de financement les plus adaptées pour financer les petites entreprises. En examinant l’impact de la diversification du revenu sur la rentabilité des banques commerciales, nous trouvons que les banques étrangères et les petites banques bénéficient de l’augmentation des revenus hors intérêts. Nous testons l’impact des actionnaires étrangers minoritaires sur le risque bancaire dans un pays où les actions détenues par les étrangers sont limitées. Nous trouvons que les banques domestiques peuvent diminuer leurs créances douteuses lorsque le droit de vote des actionnaires minoritaires étrangers augmente. L’étude de la structure actionnariale des banques dans les pays moins développés montre qu’une augmentation de la concentration de la structure actionnariale est associée à un niveau de risque plus élevé. Toutefois, de meilleures institutions peuvent atténuer l’impact de la concentration de la structure actionnariale en réduisant le risque de crédit.

Cette thèse a pour objet de déterminer à quelles conditions l’arbitre international, saisi d’un litige relatif à un contrat de joint venture sino-étrangère, est susceptible d’apporter une solution aux cocontractants et une contribution à la construction du droit de l’arbitrage des investissements étrangers en Chine. L’examen des conditions d’accès à l’arbitrage et de la détermination et de la mise en oeuvre, par l’arbitre international, des règles de droit permettra de cerner les limites du caractère véritablement international de l’arbitrage auquel est soumis le contrat de joint venture sino-étrangère. La limitation de l’autonomie des parties en droit chinois de l’arbitrage et en droit international privé chinois impose des contraintes à l’arbitre international, siégeant en Chine ou à l’étranger tant pour apprécier la validité de la clause compromissoire et l’existence et l’étendue ratione personae et ratione materiae du consentement à l’arbitrage, que pour déterminer et appliquer les règles de droit auxquelles est soumis le litige. L’examen des solutions apportées par l’arbitre international permettra d’apprécier son apport substantiel à la clarification des conditions de formation du contrat de joint venture sino-étrangère, qu’il s’agisse des conditions de fond, tirées de la qualification des parties et de l’existence et de la sincérité de leur consentement au contrat de joint venture, que des conditions de forme, tirées de l’approbation des contrats d’investissement. Cet apport est confirmé en matière d’obligations des parties, par la reconnaissance et la diversification des obligations pécuniaires, de participation et de coopération auxquelles sont tenus les associés de l’entreprise commune

Post-independent Cameroon has grappled with the problem of systemic violation of civil and political rights (CPR) despite a transition from single party dictatorship to multiparty democracy in the 1990s. Various legislative measures including the adoption of a supposedly ‘rights friendly’ constitution in 1996 have done little to ameliorate that problem. This thesis adopts a concept of constitutionalism, based on contemporary international standards, to analyse the problem of CPR violations from the perspective of the constitutional arrangements in Cameroon. It examines the system of separation of powers, the method of securing judicial independence and the mechanisms for judicial review. The argument is made that the problem can be attributed in part to the predominant influence of the French civil law system in Cameroon’s bijural legal system. Although for historical reasons, Cameroon operates both the English common law and the French civil law, constitutional developments have continued to be influenced by the latter which lends itself to practices that are not sufficiently supportive of constitutionalism as defined herein. The thesis, however, goes further to explore how the constitutional system could be reinforced to provide a more conducive framework for the protection and enhancement of CPR. Drawing on two strands of arguments, one highlighting features of the common law system that can be more supportive of constitutionalism and the other which highlights the value of indigenous antecedents of constitutionalism, the thesis proposes the development of a contextual model which is more reflective of Cameroon’s peculiar legal and socio-political circumstances. It proposes what is described as an Optimal Integrative Approach (OIA) as a framework for developing a contextual model, more conducive for the protection and enhancement of CPR in Cameroon.

L’ensemble des disciplines du droit connaît le phénomène des situations de fait. Ces dernières constituent des cas de malformation des institutions promues et protégées par le droit. En réaction, celui-ci les répugne souvent en les privant d’effets. Mais la rencontre des situations de fait avec le droit des sociétés vient bouleverser cet état de choses. En effet, non seulement elles y prolifèrent, mais encore elles ne sont pas systématiquement combattues comme dans les autres disciplines juridiques. Cette étude ambitionne donc de montrer comment le droit des sociétés, en s’appuyant sur les situations de fait, atteint son efficacité. La problématique est alors orientée vers le point de savoir qu’elle est la place qu’occupent les situations de fait dans le droit des sociétés. La réponse en est donnée à travers le constat de leur acceptation par la discipline et à travers l’examen de leur contribution à l’efficacité de cette dernière.

The use of temporary employment services as a means to achieve flexibility in die labour market led to various complications due to a lack of proper regulation. The atypical formation of the triangular employment relationship, limited rights and less favourable employment conditions of the temporary employees, multiple authority figures and their liabilities under various circumstances and the impact thereof on such employee’ collective bargaining rights caused legal uncertainty in the absence of sufficient legislation to govern it. Temporary employment agencies developed certain methods in order to evade the restrictive labour legislation and employer duties imposed on them, namely by making use of automatic termination clauses (resolutive conditions) and by categorising the temporary employee as an independent contractor. Last mentioned would effectively exclude the temporary employee from labour legislation and the protection it provides. In reaction to abovementioned problems, trade unions have been objecting to the use of temporary employment agencies and went as far as demanding the total ban thereof. This raised the question in the South African Government whether said agencies should indeed be banned. The other option is a less restrictive approach and entails the attempt to regulate these agencies by amending the current labour legislation in order to accommodate temporary employment services. In light of the fact that various proposals to amend the current South African labour legislation (especially with regard to temporary employment services) have been published in the Government Gazette, it can be deduced that the social partners ultimately chose to regulate temporary employment agencies rather than ban them altogether. From an early stage the International Labour Organisation (ILO) provided rules and regulations for the management of employment agencies in general by way of conventions and recommendations. In 1997, in order to give effect to the labour standards identified by it, the ILO brought the Private Employment Agencies Convention into existence. This document could be applied to all temporary employment agencies on an international level. This document provides for administrative regulations, the duties of the agency and the client as well as the rights of the temporary employees concerned. The ILO recommends that all of its member states incorporate the principles contained within this document in their own legislation. Temporary employment services are also used in other legal systems. For purposes of this study, the English law (United Kingdom (UK)) and the Namibian law will be scrutinised. Similar issues to those recognised in the South African law have been identified in these countries. However, each has approached said problems in different ways. The Namibian Government banned the conducting and provision of these services by way of legislation in 2007. The constitutionality of the ban has however been questioned by the Supreme Court of Namibia, after which it had been found to infringe upon the fundamental freedom to carry on any business, trade or occupation. The ban was struck down as unconstitutional. The Namibian Government has since promulgated new legislation in which it removed the ban and replaced it with numerous amendments providing for the regulation of temporary employment services. Since 1973 the UK has been promulgating various instruments for the thorough regulation of temporary employment agencies. These instruments provide for the management of temporary employment agencies and the rights of the employees involved. The relevant legislative instruments have been updated regularly with the purpose of ensuring that the needs of all the parties concerned are met. The UK, as a member state of the European Union (EU), (which has also been providing for the regulation of temporary employment services in various directives), promulgated legislation specifically with the aim to give effect to the principles in the mentioned directives. By way of doctrines and the creation of a third category ―worker‖ the UK has been attempting to prevent any loopholes in their legal system with regard to temporary employment services and the rights of the employees involved. The aim of this study is to investigate all the important complications experienced with temporary employment agencies in order to indicate the impact the atypical circumstances have on the rights of the temporary employees. The degree to which, if at all, the South African law complies with the preferred labour standards identified by the ILO will be pointed out. A comparative study will be conducted, first by ascertaining in detail how the comparable issues in the UK and Namibian law are dealt with, and second by identifying which aspects in these legal systems could be of value to the South African law. Finally the potential effectiveness of the proposed amendments to the South African labour legislation will be analysed, during which recommendations for the unresolved issues will be provided. The recommendations are mainly aimed at achieving sufficient rights and legal certainty for the temporary employees associated with temporary employment agencies.

Cette thèse se propose d'analyser l'accès à la justice civile pour les victimes de violations de droits de l'homme commises par des entreprises multinationales, au regard des règles de compétence internationale des tribunaux de international privé en matière de responsabilité civile délictuelle. La recherche mettra en exergue la double fonction que peuvent endosser les règles de compétence de droit international privé dans ce domaine, en assurant, d'une part, un accès effectif à la justice et à la réparation pour les victimes de tels abus, et en participant, d'autre part à l'effort de régulation des entreprises multinationales sur le plan global.

La stratégie contemporaine des entreprises et du mouvement coopératif et mutualiste consiste à affirmer que les coopératives et les mutuelles se caractérisent par des valeurs alternatives. Cette stratégie comporte des faiblesses, dans la mesure où il est difficile d’observer l’impact de telles valeurs dans les principaux secteurs d’activité de ces sociétés (industrie agroalimentaire, commerce de gros, banque, assurance). En revenant à leurs origines, on peut défendre l’hypothèse que les spécificités des coopératives résident plutôt dans des règles statutaires qui constituent des garde-fous à l’emprise des forces du marché. Alors que ce dernier valorise la réactivité et l’attractivité des travailleurs qualifiés, les coopératives et les mutuelles sont plutôt caractérisées par la stabilité et la capacité à créer et à exploiter des connaissances tacites et informelles adaptées à leur contexte spécifique. Or, cette logique marchande constitue le cadre d’analyse dominant, y compris pour les parties prenantes des coopératives : les individus ont « naturellement » tendance à puiser leurs solutions dans ce référentiel. Il apparaît donc nécessaire de s’en affranchir pour penser les coopératives sans renforcer les dynamiques de banalisation. The current strategy of businesses in the cooperative and mutual movement is based on asserting their alternative values. This strategy has a weakness in that it is hard to measure the impact of those values in the main cooperative and mutual sectors (the food industry and farming, wholesale distribution, banking, insurance). Looking at the origins of the cooperative movement, it could be argued that the specificity of these businesses has more to do with their internal rules that act as a safeguard against market forces. While the market values adaptability and skilled workers, cooperatives and mutuals tend to be stable and create and utilise tacit informal skills suited to their particular environments. This market-centric thinking forms the dominant analytical framework, including for cooperative stakeholders. Individuals have a “natural” tendency to draw their own solutions from the market paradigm, and it is therefore necessary to have safeguards that protect against the paradigm. Analysing cooperatives thus requires breaking out of the dominant analytical framework rather than drawing on solutions that hasten the drive towards the mainstream. La estrategia contemporánea de las empresas y del movimiento cooperativo y mutualista consiste en afirmas que esas se caracterizan por valores alternativos. Esta estrategia tiene sus debilidades en la medida que es difícil de observar el impacto de tales valores en los principales sectores de actividad de las cooperativas y de las mutuales (industria agro-alimentaria, comercio de mayoreo, bancos, seguros). Volviendo a los orígenes de las cooperativas, se puede defender la hipótesis que las especificidades de estas empresas permanecen más bien en los estatutos legales que son garantías contra la influencia de las fuerzas del mercado. Mientras que el mercado valoriza la reactividad y el carácter atractivo de los trabajadores calificados, las cooperativas y mutuales son más bien caracterizadas por su estabilidad y su capacidad a crear y explotar conocimientos tácitos e informales adaptados a sus contextos especificados. Sin embargo, esta lógica mercantilista constituye el marco analítico dominante, incluso por las cooperativas participantes: los individuos tienen naturalmente tendencia a sacar sus soluciones en este repositorio y es necesario por lo tanto de beneficiar de pantallas qué protegen de este repositorio. Se debe entonces liberarse del marco analítico dominante para pensar las cooperativas, mas bien qué extraer soluciones que fortalecen la dinámica de la mercantilización.