Bibliographie sélective OHADA

Anonim şirkette geçerli temel ilkelerden birisi, pay devrinin serbestliği ilkesidir. Anonim şirkette üyeliği temsil eden paylar, serbestçe devredilebilir ve miras yoluyla geçişe konu olabilir. Yeni dönemde, İsviçre Hukuku'nu takip eden TTK, pay devri sınırlamalarını "borsaya kote edilmiş" ve "borsaya kote edilmemiş" paylar üzerinden kurgulamıştır. Borsaya kote edilmemiş paylarda bağlam, gerçek bir devir sınırlamasıdır ve şirket devre onay vermeden, işlem geçerlilik kazanamaz. Ayrıca onay olmadan, payı devralan müktesibe, hiçbir hak geçmez. Kanun şirkete üç red nedeni vermiştir. Birincisi, şirket sözleşmesine yazılacak "önemli nedenler," ikincisi esas sözleşmede bir devir sınırlaması iradesi olmak kaydıyla, uluslararası literatürde "kaçınma klozu" olarak geçen "Escape-Clause" ve inançlı iktisaba karşı korunmadır. Borsaya kote edilmiş paylarda ise TTK ve SPKn. devrededir. TTK'da, borsaya kote edilmiş paylarda sadece "yüzdelik sınırlama"ya izin verilmekte ve payın geçişi ile birlikte (borsa dışı iktisapta bildirim), katılım hakları hariç, diğer haklar müktesibe intikal etmektedir. Bu paylar, yasal yolla intikal ettiğinde ise (miras, miras paylaşımı, cebri icra veya eşler arası mal rejimleri hükümleri), şirket müktesibi tanımak zorunda kalmaktadır. Buna karşılık, SPKn.'nın 137/3. maddesi gereğince şirket, borsada gerçekleşen işlemler sonucu payı edinen kişiyi, pay defterine kayıttan kaçınamaz. Bu tercih tartışmalar getirebilecektir. Özellikle borsa şirketlerinin kendini bağlamla koruyamayacak olmaları ile borsanın yapısına uygun olarak "mutlak devredilebilirlik" arasındaki çatışmanın sonuçlarını ilerleyen yıllar gösterecektir. Bağlam, anonim şirket düzeni ile temelde çatışan bir kurumdur. Ancak şirketin yabancılaşmaya karşı veya kendine özgü niteliklerinin korunması bakımından yararlıdır. Ancak bağlamın yasadaki düzenleniş şekli, devrin fiilen (de facto) engellenmesi şekline bürünmemelidir. Buna rağmen şirket düzeni ile temelde çelişki yaratan bir kurum olan "bağlam" ile ilgili tartışmalar, hiçbir zaman bitmeyecektir. One of the main respected principles in stock companies is the principle of transferability of shares. Shares representing membership in a stock corporation shall be freely transferred and inheritted. According to this principle each shareholder may depart from the stock company by transferring his/her share/shares principally whenever he wants. The Turkish Commercial Code based on Swiss Law regulated restriction of transferability as "Listed registered shares" and "Not listed registered shares". Restriction on transferability in "Not listed registered shares" is an exact restriction. Because where the consent required for transfer of shares is not given, the ownership of the shares and all attendant rights remain with the alienator (Turkish Commercial Code, Art. 494/1). Listed registered shares are regulated in both The Turkish Commercial Code and the Capital Market Law. In the case of listed registered shares, the company may refuse to accept the acquier as a shareholder only where the articles of association envisage a percentage limit on the registered shares for which an acquirer must be recognised as shareholder and such a limit is exceeded. But according to the art. 137/3 of Capital Market Law a stock corporation can not refrain from registering a shareholder who acquired listed registered shares to share register. Especially is protection of a stock corporation itself against hostile take-over by means of "restrictions on transferibility" important or absolute transferibility which is appropriate for the structure of stock-exchange? The results of the art. 137/3 of Capital Market Law will occur in the future.

Sermayenin yönetim kurulu kararıyla artırılması esasına dayanan kayıtlı sermaye sistemi, daha hızlı ve daha az masrafla ortaklığın sermayesinin artırılmasını amaçlar. 2499 sa. SerPK' den bu yana halka açık anonim ortaklıklara özgü bir kurum olarak Türk hukukunda uygulanmakta olan sistem, TTK ile birlikte halka açık olmayan anonim ortaklıklar için de uygulanabilir hale gelmiştir. Aynı esaslara dayandığı ve aynı amaca hizmet ettiği için kurumun, TTK ve SerPK' de ayrı ayrı düzenlenmesine lüzum yoktur. Sistem, yönetim kurulunun usulüne uygun olarak sermayenin artırılması konusunda yetkilendirilmesi suretiyle ortaklık açısından uygulanabilir hale gelir. Yetkilendirme işlemleri esas sözleşme değişikliğini gerektirir. Yönetim kurulunun sermayeyi artırma yetkisi, esas sözleşmede gösterilen kayıtlı sermaye ve yetki süresiyle sınırlıdır. Bu sınırlara ulaşılmışsa ve esas sözleşmeyle yeni yetki sınırları tespit edilmemişse, yönetim kurulu sermaye artırım kararı alamaz. Öte yandan, bu yetkilendirmede yönetim kuruluna, sermaye artırım yetkisi yanında sermayenin artırılmasıyla bağlantılı olup kanunda izin verilen konularda da yetki tanınabilir. TTK ve SerPK' deki ilgili hükümler incelendiğinde, kayıtlı sermaye sisteminde sermaye artırım kararının, esas sermaye sisteminde olduğu gibi, esas sözleşme değişikliği olarak kabul edildiği görülmektedir. Bu düzenlemeler, sadece genel kurulun toplanıp karar alması işlemleri için gerekli olan zamandan ve masraftan tasarruf edilmesini sağlar. Kayıtlı sermaye sisteminin daha etkin bir kurum olarak kullanılması, esas sözleşme değişikliğine ilişkin işlemlerin de bertaraf edilmesini gerekli kılar. Anahtar Kelimeler: Sermaye, Kayıtlı Sermaye, Sermaye Artırımı, Yönetim Kurulu, Anonim Ortaklık. The registered capital system is based on increasing the capital with decision of board aims to increase the company's capital faster and less costly. System that is applied in Turkish Law as an institution special to public companies since CMC no: 2499, becomes applicable for non-public companies with TCC. As based on the same principles and serves the same purpose, there is no need to regulate the institution in TCC and CMC separately. System becomes applicable in terms of company, by duly authorization the board concerning capital increase. Authorization procedures require amendment of company's article. Authority of capital increase of board is limited with the registered capital and authority period that are shown in company's article. When it reached this limits and determined any new authority limits with the company's article, board can not take a decision on capital increase. On the other hand, in this authorization, board also can be authorized on the issues that are in connection with capital increase and permitted by act, in addition to the capital increase authority. When analyzed the related provisions in TCC and CMC, it is seen that the capital increase in registered capital system, as in ordinary capital system, is accepted as company's article amendment. These regulations provide to save only from time and cost that are required for procedures to take decision of general assembly. Using the registered capital system as more effective institution requires to eliminate the procedures related to amendment of company's article. Keywords: Capital, Registered Capital, Capital Increase, Board of Directors, Joint Stock Corporation.

This thesis aims to provide an analytical framework to which investor-State arbitral tribunals can refer in cases where international trade law is invoked. The starting point of the present study is the trend in commentary on international trade and investment law, which makes the argument that international trade and investment law should be reconciled due to the clear "convergence" between (some of) their constitutive elements. This convergence argument is not misguided: there are similarities between the underlying principles of global trade and investment and, as such, a better coordination of these principles would be helpful for several reasons. Such reasons include legal certainty, reduction of transaction costs, better coherence in the operation of international agreements that now combine both trade and investment provisions, to name a few. However, no matter how reconcilable or converging the two disciplines may be, their enforcement mechanisms are structurally different and are likely to remain so even if the reforms towards a modernization of the investment dispute settlement (currently discussed at the EU policy level) are eventually implemented in the near future. In light of this last point, it is possible to claim that integration between trade law and investment law will only have limited or even negative effects if the trade and investment adjudicators continue to exercise their functions in an isolated manner, without taking cognizance of (i) the norms contained in the other discipline and (ii) the other adjudicator's scope of authority. Effective convergence of trade and investment entails a two-way process pursuant to which one adjudicator can use (i.e. take into account, refer to, apply, interpret and enforce) the law of the other and vice-versa. The thesis envisages one of the two dimensions of this process, namely the use of trade law by the investment adjudicator. Looking into the details of the convergence argument, the role of investment dispute settlement mechanism and the use of trade norms over the past two decades by litigants and arbitrators, the present study identifies both the legal techniques and obstacles these actors shall apply or go beyond in order to use trade norms in the most appropriate way and, more importantly, benefit from this use.

The purpose of this thesis is to do a comparative reappraisal of debt relief measures available to natural person debtors in the South African insolvency law. Although the broader South African natural person insolvency system currently includes three statutory debt relief procedures, namely, the sequestration procedure regulated by the Insolvency Act 24 of 1936, the administration order procedure in terms of the Magistrates Courts Act 32 of 1944 and the debt review procedure found in the National Credit Act 34 of 2005, not all natural person debtors have access to the system. The majority of this marginalised group are debtors with no income and no assets (the so-called No Income No Asset (NINA) debtors). Also, only one measure provides real debt relief in the form of a statutory discharge of debt. Furthermore, the existing measures have developed in a haphazard fashion which has led to a multiplicity of procedures, regulators and forums that resulted in ineffectiveness, inequality and uncertainty. The larger system therefore lacks proper policy considerations. This thesis provides the reasons for reform by, amongst others, arguing that the present situation is unconstitutional as it unreasonably and unfairly discriminates against the NINA group of debtors in particular. It measures the broader South African system against internationally accepted principles of efficient and effective natural person insolvency regimes. In this regard it is found that the system as a whole is seriously deficient. With reference to international principles and guidelines as well as suitable attributes found in foreign jurisdictions, the thesis concludes with suggestions for real law reform. Both substantive and procedural recommendations are made.

The field of customs is commonly referred to as that of imports and exports. It is perceived as a maze of processes, procedures, and forms required to enable a customs administration to perform their wide range of responsibilities. One of the responsibilities of a customs administration is the collection of duties, which necessitates classification of the goods in question. This study sets out to determine the extent of customs control in relation to tariff classification in South Africa. The starting point is the establishment of the foundations of customs, both internationally and in South Africa. After origin and valuation, tariff classification is the third technical customs-related focus area. An analysis of the responsibilities of the customs administration in South Africa confirms the importance of revenue collection and, subsequently, tariff classification. As a result of South Africa’s membership of the World Customs Organization, specific obligations in relation to tariff classification are incurred. The implementation and application of the international provisions are considered and compared in South Africa, Australia, and Canada. Not only is South Africa’s existing legislation considered, but also two new Acts. It is found that despite similarities in the implementation of the Harmonized System Convention into the legislation of the three countries, South Africa’s existing legislation makes the most detailed provision for the Harmonized System and its aids. This is based on the finding that the legislation in Australia and Canada, as well as the two new Acts in South Africa, do not have the same comprehensive provisions. A critical review of the varying processes of classification in the three countries suggests that more suitable and effective processes could be implemented in South Africa. In addition, a synopsis of some of the principles developed in case law is provided and compared. In relation to facilitation, the access to relevant information and the adequacy thereof, as well as the availability of rulings, are considered. Differences in the approach to dispute resolution in the three countries are furthermore provided. Proposals are made to address the discrepancies in the implementation and application of the legislation, the process of classification, the principles developed in case law, the enhancement of related guides, the publication of tariff classification rulings, and the extent of facilitation and dispute resolution. Finally it is recommended that an independent and expert tribunal is established to adjudicate technical customs matters.

Les transactions électroniques revêtent une importance croissante pour les pouvoirs publics, les entreprises et les consommateurs dans la plupart des pays. Le commerce électronique se développe, créant de nombreuses possibilités, mais se heurte encore à l’obstacle majeur qu’est le manque de sécurité et de confiance. La fraude en ligne et les atteintes à la sécurité des données suscitent des inquiétudes grandissantes et appellent des réponses législatives et réglementaires adéquates, qui permettent de faire croître le commerce intérieur et extérieur. Il n’est cependant pas facile d’adopter un cadre juridique et réglementaire satisfaisant, étant donné la variété et la complexité des législations et réglementations et l’évolution rapide des technologies et des marchés. Les nouveaux modes de paiement et le recours croissant à l’informatique en nuage rendent plus urgent encore le besoin de progrès dans ce domaine. La présente note porte sur les grandes questions juridiques dont il faut tenir compte pour faciliter le commerce électronique et améliorer la sécurité de la communication sur Internet en général. Elle passe brièvement en revue certaines des pratiques les plus indiquées pour surmonter les obstacles bien connus à l’élaboration et à l’application de la cyberlégislation, en prenant appui sur les activités que la CNUCED mène en liaison avec des groupements régionaux de pays en développement. On présente aussi dans cette note les résultats des travaux de la CNUCED sur les lois régissant actuellement ces aspects du commerce électronique, en soulignant les progrès accomplis et les lacunes à combler. On y réfléchit enfin aux moyens d’appliquer et de faire respecter efficacement les lois en vigueur en tenant compte des nouvelles technologies disponibles sur Internet et les appareils mobiles. Les politiques devraient viser à garantir la compatibilité des législations et à renforcer les capacités des principales parties prenantes, notamment les autorités chargées de faire respecter les lois.

There is extensive literature on conflict of legal norms and interests in international investment law. The dominant discourse is on the implications of treaty-based investment protection for sovereign regulatory autonomy. Mainstream scholarship critical of the scope and effect of investment treaties has taken the legal status of these treaties for granted. Little systematic attention has been paid to the capacity of states to make investment treaties and the obligations states can or cannot agree to under those treaties in light of their public interest obligations. Yet, this issue is of fundamental importance for three reasons. First, the case for states’ regulatory autonomy arises out of their primary duty to regulate in the public interest. This duty has its legal justification in national constitutions and international law. Second, treaty obligations are founded on the existence of legal norms necessary for the treaty to come into existence and which define the juridical consequences attached to the conclusion of the treaty. These matters are also determined by national constitutions and international law. Third, the limitations inherent in state-specific defences in international investment disputes settlement compel a proactive rethink of the conclusion of investment treaties and how they are interpreted. The question this thesis assesses with reference to Ghana then is: does a state that is legally required to act both under the terms of its constitution and international law in the public interest have the capacity to conclude investment treaties that expressly prevent or abridge the exercise of its public interest regulatory powers, and how should treaties adopted in breach of these obligations be interpreted? To address this question, three areas of public interest regulation that have featured prominently in investment arbitration serve as case studies: the jurisdiction of municipal courts, environmental protection and development policy. Based on the impact and potential limitations of standards of investment protection on these areas, the thesis argues that some treaties are incompatible with the public interest regulation obligations of Ghana under the Constitution and international law. The core proposition of the thesis is that the legal source and public purpose of the State’s powers prevent it from concluding agreements that directly prohibit public interest regulation or indirectly achieve that effect. Accordingly, the thesis proposes that the express and implied limitations on the duty to regulate in the public interest placed on investment treaty making powers of the State must inform the making of investment treaties and their interpretation. By its approach, this thesis establishes a principled basis for reflection on the limits to the State’s capacity to conclude investment treaties and on how they should be interpreted.

Archive institutionnelle de l'Université de Genève - Institutional Repository of the University of Geneva

Bu çalışmanın amacı, 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu sistemi ile limited ortaklıklar hukukuna getirilen iki yeni müessesenin incelenmesidir. Ek ödeme ve yan edim yükümlülükleri incelenmiştir. Ortak, ortaklık, pay senedi, limited ortaklık sözleşmesi, esas sermaye, esas sermaye payı, bilânço, bilânço açığı, zarar, zararın kapatılması, edim, yükümlülük, ek finansman araçları, ortaklıktan çıkma ve çıkarılma kavramları ışığında ek ödeme ve yan edim yükümlülüklerinin bu kavramlarla irtibatı açıklanmıştır. Bu incelemeler sonucunda ek ödeme ve yan edim yükümlülüklerinin ülkemizde limited ortaklıkların ticaret hayatında yer edinebilmelerini ve gelişmesini temin edecek faydalı hukuki müesseseler olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Anahtar Sözcükler 1. Limited Ortaklıklar 2. 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu 3. Yükümlülük 4. Ek Ödeme Yükümlülüğü 5. Yan Edim Yükümlülüğü. The main purpose of this thesis is to research the new two concepts which were ordered by the system of new Turkish Commercial Code numbered 6102. In this thesis, the concepts of supplementary obligation of subscription and obligation of fulfilment were researched. The relationships between the concepts of supplementary obligation of subscription and obligation of fulfilment and the shareholder, limited company, certification of share, contract of limited company, capital, balance, deficit of balance, damage, annihilation of damage, fulfilment, obligation, departation and taking off were explained. The results of these research shows us that the concepts of supplementary obligation of subscription and obligation of additional fulfilment are beneficial concepts which are useful and necessary for surviving and developing materials for limited companies in Turkish business life. Key Words 1. Limited Companies 2. Turkish Commercial Code numbered 6102 3. Obligation 4. Supplementary Obligation of Subscription 5. Obligation of Additional Fulfilment

Taking into account the status of spouses by business law of the Organization for the Harmonization of African Business Law (OHADA) is referring to general commercial law and company law. The OHADA legislator values the status of spouses devoting equality between spouses, through the possibility for them to be able to be involved in low risk companies; the recognition of the de facto company between them and the right granted to each power, under the same conditions, benefit from the commercial lease originally attached to privileges. The consideration that the OHADA law grants the quality of husband appears in heritage protection thereof, insofar as it puts it away in case of depletion bad deal made by one of them . This is why the prohibition for spouses to be involved in the unlimited risk firms and the requirement of a separate trade as a condition for the spouse of the trader can also acquire the same status. But the heritage protection system spouse taken from the OHADA business law is supplemented by certain mechanisms of civil law, including matrimonial property regimes, although not all have the same efficiency. Indeed, among the two groups of matrimonial property regimes are known as separation schemes and those of the community property, only the first effectively protect the couple's assets. This objective likely was not assigned to the second from the design. These look more forward the merger of most of the assets of the couple without the slightest idea of calculation.

There is increasing interest in social and environmental issues throughout the world, especially in developed countries, where governments, organizations, and society well recognise the impact of business activities on the environment and society. Consequently, companies have potentially no alternative but to behave in a responsible manner, socially and environmentally, and to prove this by disclosing information about their related conduct. In this regard, banks play two important roles: first, as providers of social and environmental information in much the same manner as nonfinancial companies; and second, as providers of finance, by encouraging—if not obliging—bank customers to consider society and the environment in their bank-financed projects. Banks fulfil the latter role by requiring social and environmental information from companies when making lending decisions. Only a few Libyan studies have examined social and environmental issues in relation to economic activity, and these have generally revealed low levels of disclosure practice by organisations, including banks, in these areas. In addition, many changes have taken place in the Libyan economy and banking sector in recent years, including the establishment of a market exchange; decreased government participation in economic activities; and increased growth of the private sector that results, especially in the banking sector, with the entrance of foreign investors. These changes have placed a new emphasis on bank operations and the participation of banks in the Libyan economy. Thus, studying Libyan banks, in terms of their role in the environment and society, has attracted growing interest. As such, the core objective of this thesis has been to investigate the position of Libyan banks in relation to social and environmental issues and disclosure by considering their dual role as both providers and users of such information.

Tüm sermaye şirketlerinde, "sermaye" niteleyicisinin de belirttiği üzere, hissedarların şirket borçlarına karşı sorumluluğu, hissedarların şirkete hisse katılım değerleriyle sınırlı olduğu prensibi kabul edilir. Aynı şekilde, hissedarların ticari kararlardaki ağırlığı aynı sınırlama prensibine bağlı olarak belirlenir. Ticari şirketler hakkındaki Türk yasalarında ve Afrika Ticaret Kanunu Uyum Örgütünün (Organisation pour l'harmonisation en Afrique des droits des affaires, OHADA) yasalarında, sermaye şirketlerinde, "hissedarların sorumluluk ve ağırlığı prensiplerinin" sıkı bir şekilde korunduğunu gözlemleriz. Hissedarların genel olağan ve olağanüstü kurulları, genellikle, şirketin günlük yönetimini aşan kararları alma yetkisine sahiptir. Bu kararlar kesin belirlenmiş bir çoğunluğa göre alınır. Sermaye şirketlerinin günlük yönetimi alanında kalan bütün kararlar, bahsi geçen şirketlerin ticari katılım oranlarına göre – aslında hissedarlardakileri gelen – şirketlerin yönetim organlarının yetkilerinden kaynaklanır. Sermaye şirketlerinde, genel kurullar veya yönetim organları tarafından alınan, tüm kararlar, bu şirket hissedarları bahse geçen kurullara veya organlara katılmalarsalar bile, tüm şirket hissedarları için geçerli, uygulanabilir veya muhalefet edilebilirlerdir. Bu durum göz önüne alındığında şöyle bir çıkarımda bulunabiliriz: bu tür şirketlerde, hisselerin çoğunluğunu elinde bulunduran hissedarlar, bu şirketleri idare etme yetkisini de aynı zamanda elinde bulundurmaktadırlar. Birçok aynı durumda, çoğunluk hissedarları ve azınlık hissedarları arasındaki menfaat çatışmalarını gözlemleyebiliriz. Oybirliği veya nitelikli çoğunluk gerektiren kararlar dışında, çoğunluk hissedarları, olağan ve olağanüstü kurallarda tüm yetkiyi ellerinde bulundurmaktadır. Aynı şekilde, sermaye şirketlerinin yönetim organlarında, çoğunluk hissedarları her zaman yöneticileri tayin etmektedir. Bu koşullarda, kararların alınmasında, çoğunluğun azınlığın menfaatlerinin göz önüne aldığı durumlarla karşılaşmak pek olanaklı değildir. Bu nedenle, çoğunluğun karşılıklı menfaatleri ve azınlığın menfaatleri arasındaki denge sorunu, genellikle çoğunluğa karşı azınlığın haklarının ve menfaatlerinin korunması sorunuyla bir tutulmayı hak etmektedir. Özellikle, çoğunluğu kontrol etmek yoluyla suiistimalleri önlemek veya hissedarlar arasındaki çatışmaları azaltmak için, azınlığa bazı haklar ve yetkiler vermek suretiyle azınlığı korumak esastır. Ancak, bu hak ve yetkilerin kapsamı "çoğunluk tarafından yönetim prensibi" ile sınırlandırılmalıdır. Bu çalışma kapsamında, OHADA ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin ticaret hukukunda yer aldığı şekliyle, sermaye şirketlerinde azınlığın korunması hakkındaki uygulanan yolları analiz ettik. Bununla beraber, azınlık hissedarlarının korunması hakkında statü düzenlemelerini analiz edebilmek için, OHADA ve Türk hukukundaki, bazı sermaye şirketlerinin esas sözleşmelerini örnek olarak aldık. Hissedarlar, bu sözleşmelerde, yasalarda öngörülen düzenlemelerden daha iyi düzenlemeleri öngörme olasılığına sahip olmaktadırlar. Bu çalışmanın sonuçlarının, Afrikalı ve Türk hukukçular için olduğu kadar OHADA'ya üye ülkelerden Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'ne yatırım yapmak isteyen herkes için yararlı olacağı inancındayız. Dans les sociétés commerciales des capitaux, il existe le principe de délimitation des responsabilités des actionnaires par rapport aux dettes sociales et aux prises de décisions sociales. En lisant attentivement la législation turque sur les sociétés commerciales et la législation de l'Organisation pour l'harmonisation en Afrique des droits des affaires « Ohada» en sigle, nous observons également l'existence de ce principe de délimitation des responsabilités et de poids des actionnaires dans les sociétés commerciales des capitaux prévues dans toutes les deux législations. En Droit de l'Ohada tout comme en Droit Turc des sociétés commerciales, les assemblées générales des actionnaires dans les sociétés des capitaux, disposent de la compétence de prendre les décisions sur la politique générale et qui dépassent la gestion quotidienne des sociétés. Les décisions des assemblées générales sont prises, selon la majorité bien déterminée au cas par cas. Tandis que, les organes de gestion de ces sociétés, disposent des compétences pour décider sur la gestion quotidienne desdites sociétés. Toutes les décisions prises tant par les assemblées générales des actionnaires que par les organes de gestion des sociétés commerciales des capitaux, demeurent valables et opposables à tous les actionnaires sociaux; même à l'égard des actionnaires qui n'y ont pas participé. Au regard de cette observation, il nous est logique d'affirmer que dans les sociétés des capitaux, ce sont les actionnaires majoritaires qui disposent logiquement tous les pouvoirs de décider sur les sorts sociaux. Dans pareilles conditions, nous pouvons observer que les conflits d'intérêts entre les actionnaires majoritaires et ceux minoritaires, sont inévitables. Sauf pour les décisions qui nécessitent l'unanimité ou celles qui requièrent une majorité qualifiée, les actionnaires majoritaires détiennent tous les pouvoirs des décisions dans les assemblées et même dans les organes de gestion car, ce sont toujours les actionnaires majoritaires qui désignent les dirigeants de ces sociétés en fonctions de leurs poids sociaux. Il est ainsi peu probable que la majorité prenne en considération les intérêts de la minorité dans la prise des décisions. Pour cette raison, la question d'établir l'équilibre entre les intérêts respectifs des actionnaires majoritaires et ceux des minoritaires, mérite d'être assimilée en général à la question de la protection des droits et intérêts de la minorité contre la majorité. Plus précisément, il est indispensable de protéger la minorité en lui accordant certains droits et pouvoirs pour qu'elle puisse contrôler la majorité aux fins de prévenir les abus ou de limiter les conflits entre les actionnaires. Cependant, l'étendue de ces droits et de ces pouvoirs mérite d'être limitée par le principe de la gestion sociale par la majorité. Dans le cadre de cette étude, nous avons analysé la manière dont les actionnaires minoritaires sont protégés dans les législations de l'Ohada et turque. En plus, nous avons approfondi notre étude avec les analyses des dispositions statutaires y relatives d'une dizaine des sociétés commerciales des capitaux de deux Droits concernés car, les actionnaires disposent légalement le pouvoir d'en prévoir meilleur que ce qui était prévu par les législateurs. Nous sommes convaincus que les résultats de cette étude, seront théoriquement bénéfiques pour les juristes qui s'intéressent aux Droits turc et de l'Ohada et pratiquement importants pour toute personne qui souhaite investir tant dans la République de Turquie que dans l'un des dix-sept (17) pays membres de l'Ohada.

Abstract not available.

Various initiatives by regulators in different jurisdictions over the past two decades have completely reshaped the airline industry in ways that were unimaginable in 1992. From an industry dominated by Pan Am and Trans World Airlines (TWA), and newly privatized airlines such as British Airways, today's industry is dominated by government-owned intercontinental airlines based in the Middle East and carrying passengers the majority of whom are ultimately destined for States other than the States where the airlines are based. Insufficient thought has been given to whether this evolution is desirable, whether it involves profound competitive distortions or whether it is in the public interest that the majority of Australians visiting Europe are carried by an airline based in neither jurisdiction or that a similar claim might be made with respect to traffic between South Asia and the Americas. This thesis examines the events that have reshaped the international aviation industry over the two decades between 1992 and 2012. It will critically analyze the major developments and the regulatory responses and highlight some of the incompatible and disjointed regulations that are in effect at either end of international routes. It ultimately proposes that Australia, Canada, the European Union (EU), New Zealand and the United States (US) form a small international organization, to be known as the Open Skies International Aviation Block (OSIAB). OSIAB would be based on expanding the membership of the US-EU Joint Committee foreseen in the 2007 US-EU Open Skies Agreement and expanding its scope to cover every aspect of the regulation of international commercial aviation. This thesis argues such a forum is necessary to ensure that regulations in different countries are aligned so that competitive distortions potentially caused by regulatory disharmony are minimized, thus allowing the international airline industry to compete on the level international playing field that so many international agreements have promised to create.

This dissertation purports to connect the preliminary reference procedure with direct taxation. The aim of my dissertation is to lay down how this essential mechanism for the development of EU law – the preliminary reference procedure – deals with the cases in the field of direct taxation. By analyzing the preliminary rulings in the particular field, this thesis will shed light on the meaning of judicial cooperation between the Court of Justice of the European Union (“Court”) and the national courts. The almost absence of harmonized direct taxation reached at the European level enables the Court throughout the preliminary reference procedure to become the only available actor to safeguard the rights conferred to the individuals by EU law. In the area of direct taxation, it encompasses the rights of the individuals to exercise the fundamental Treaty freedoms of circulation. Therefore, the entrenchment of the rights of the individuals requires national courts requesting questions for preliminary rulings whereby national tax law in breach of EU law is challenged. Accordingly, this narrative of “protection of EU rights” which is embedded within article 267 TFEU enables the Court to adopt the role of a constitutional court assessing the compatibility of national law with EU law. The current asymmetries and conceptual mismatches of the substantive case law in the field of direct taxation are firmly anchored in a preliminary reference procedure in which the Court, as a constitutional court, is endowed with discretionary powers to drive it.

Aussi loin que l’on remonte dans le temps, la protection de l’intérêt général est associée au système des brevets. Pourtant, ce concept flou a suscité une vive controverse au sujet du brevet pharmaceutique souvent accusé d’être un obstacle à l’accès aux innovations pharmaceutiques et de perpétuer la fracture sociale. À vrai dire, le brevet est un instrument juridique au service d’enjeux socio-économiques; il confère à l’invention une valeur marchande et n’a pas vocation à être un obstacle à l’accès aux innovations pharmaceutiques. En effet, des études concordantes ont montré que, d’une part, sans le brevet une très grande proportion d’innovations pharmaceutiques ne serait pas mise au point et, d’autre part, l’écartement ou l’expiration du brevet n’ont pas été accompagnés d’un achat massif de produits pharmaceutiques. En tout état de cause, le monopole lié au brevet est précaire et le refus du brevet pharmaceutique s’accompagnera, sans doute, d’un manque d’intérêt à investir dans les activités de recherche et développement pharmaceutiques. En outre, le droit des brevets apporte assez de correctifs pour favoriser la disponibilité des innovations pharmaceutiques pour résoudre le problème de leur accès. Cette thèse sort des sentiers battus pour proposer une relecture du brevet pharmaceutique, sous l’angle de l’analyse économique du droit; elle démontre qu’il sert l’intérêt général. La théorie suivant laquelle le brevet pharmaceutique protège et promeut l’intérêt général n’est pas liée à la question de l’accès aux innovations pharmaceutiques; elle s’entend des intérêts scientifiques et socio-économiques qui y sont associés.

La création des coopératives en Afrique remonte à la période coloniale. Elles sont aujourd’hui régies par l’Acte uniforme du 15 décembre 2010 relatif au droit des sociétés coopératives. S’affranchissant de la tutelle administrative vers 1990, elles sont devenues démocratiques et évoluent doucement vers les sociétés commerciales, mais différemment des entreprises individuelles et sociétés par actions. Comme l’Acte uniforme qui les régit permet à toute personne, quelle que soit sa nationalité, d’exercer en société coopérative une activité dans l’espace de l’OHADA et que l’article 296 de l’Acte définit le statut du représentant permanent de la personne morale coopératrice, des étrangers, dont les Occidentaux, peuvent y exercer cette activité. Fort de la susdite dynamique, les sociétés coopératives peuvent, au regard du droit canadien, offrir tous les types de produits ou de services et accomplir des actes de commerce. Au sein de ces différents droits, lesdites sociétés sont largement réfractaires à la nullité. Dès lors, il se pose un problème relatif à l’étendue de leur nullité et de celle de leurs actes. Cette analyse répond à la question en montrant que le domaine des nullités est aujourd’hui restreint, de façon assez ambiguë, par l’Acte uniforme et la pratique qui favorise la régularisation de certains actes nuls en matière de société coopérative.