Bibliographie sélective OHADA

As globalisation intensifies, the environmental burden of economic development is being shifted to poor countries. This development manifests in waste trade involving the transboundary shipment of toxic waste from developed to developing countries. This article evaluates the strategies with which waste trade is being perpetuated to the detriment of sustainable development and human rights values in Sub-Sahara Africa. It argues that capitalism has influenced massive generation and commodification of waste, especially in industrialised countries. It has also established that globalisation has made the transboundary shipment of waste easy. Moreover, foreign investments in the waste industry in developing countries appear to be a means by developed countries to perpetuate waste shipment to developing countries, which helps waste traders to avoid stringent regulations and high costs of waste management in developed countries. Therefore, such investments in developing countries should not always be viewed as a breakthrough in attracting foreign investments. The findings made include that despite the existence of the Basel and Bamako Conventions at global and regional levels, respectively, waste trade has continued in different forms in Africa, where waste merchants exploit the low-cost facilities, cheap labour and weak regulatory frameworks. The trend includes the reckless dumping of hazardous industrial waste, electronic waste as well as ostensible investment in “dirty industries” in some African countries. It concludes by urging the states to individually establish robust mechanisms that protect the environment and enforce environmental rights. These measures will help complement the collective efforts they have made in multilateral and regional agreements.

Bu doktora tezi, anonim ortaklıklar hukukunda esas sözleşme özgürlüğü ve bunun sınırlarının çeşitli açılardan incelenmesini konu almaktadır. Üç bölümden oluşan tezin ilk bölümü konunun kuramsal çerçevesini çizmeyi hedeflerken, ikinci ve üçüncü bölümler ise mevcut sorunlar karşısında dogmatik hukuk bakımından çözümler geliştirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu kapsamda öncelikle özel hukukta ve ortaklıklar hukukunda sözleşme özgürlüğünün kavramsal, teorik, tarihsel, anayasal, ekonomik ve ahlaki zemini ortaya koyulmuştur. İkinci bölümde sözleşme özgürlüğünün anonim ortaklıklar hukukundaki görünümü ele alınmış ve bunu hayata geçiren en önemli işlem olan esas sözleşme çeşitli açılardan irdelenmiştir. Son bölümde ise esas sözleşme özgürlüğünün genel hükümler ve anonim ortaklıklar hukuku çerçevesindeki sınırları incelenmiştir. Bu bağlamda TK m. 340 hükmünde düzenlenen emredici hükümler ilkesine özel bir önem atfedilmiştir. Çalışmada disiplinler arası yöntemin esas alınması doğrultusunda ortaklık teorilerine ve hukukun ekonomik analizine başvurulmuştur. Anılan yöntemlerin katkısı hem pozitif hukuk hem de hukuk politikası açısından ortaya koyulmuştur. Ayrıca incelemede karşılaştırmalı hukuka ve tarihsel araştırmaya geniş yer ayrılmıştır. This doctoral thesis analyzes contractual freedom in articles of association and its limits in joint stock companies from various aspects. The thesis consists of three parts. While the first part aims to set the theoretical framework of the problem, the second and third parts intend to find solutions vis-à-vis existing problems in terms of positive law. Within this scope conceptual, theoretical, constitutional, economic and ethical aspects of contractual freedom in private law and corporate law are primarily examined. The second part deals with contractual freedom in corporate law and examines articles of association from various perspectives as it is the most important legal act that brings contractual freedom into being. The last part analyzes the limits of contractual freedom in articles of association pursuant to general provisions of civil law and joint stock company law. In this regard, the principle of mandatory norms stipulated in Turkish Commercial Code numbered 6102 Article 340 is attached a particular importance. Theories of the corporation and economic analysis of law are applied in accordance with the interdisciplinary methodological view adopted in this study. Contribution of the mentioned methods are set forth in terms of both positive law and legal policy. Moreover, comparative legal analysis and historical analysis are used extensively.

Maritime transport is essential to the world’s economy and maritime arbitration plays a crucial role in maritime dispute resolution. Nowadays, many coastal jurisdictions have set up their own maritime arbitration institutions such as those in the US, the UK, Germany, Australia, China, Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Building a national world-advanced maritime arbitration system as soon as possible to suit China’s rapid developments in shipping and international trading does not permit of any delay. How should China improve her laws, rules and institutions, including those for the enforcement of maritime arbitration awards, having regard to leading international maritime arbitration systems? It is posited that selective adaptation from the successful experience of other maritime arbitration systems is the most convenient and effective way to achieve such a goal. This adaptation will follow from a comprehensive and comparative study of the maritime arbitration laws, rules and the maritime arbitration institutions, including the laws relating to the enforcement of maritime arbitration awards, from these main global maritime arbitration centres in order to make China’s maritime arbitration more competitive at the international level. This thesis does not purport to cover every research field relating to maritime arbitration. Instead, as previously stated, it will focus only on the comparative study of some selected key issues of international commercial arbitration among the selected jurisdictions. A comprehensive study of international commercial arbitration or international maritime law is not the subject of this thesis. It should be noted further that this research basically concentrates on the practical problems of maritime arbitration practices, rather than taking an overly theoretical approach. The thesis selects the UK, the US, Singapore and Hong Kong as the target jurisdictions for comparison. Through selective comparative analysis of the key issues of maritime arbitration systems in the selected jurisdictions, which are internationally recognised as significant by many arbitration scholars, this thesis proposes that all these issues could conveniently be categorised into four key criteria; namely, fairness, confidentiality, efficiency and enforceability. It follows that the adaptations of the Chinese maritime arbitration system should mainly focus on these four criteria, as these are the most critical factors for the development of Chinese maritime arbitration system. Moreover, these four criteria should also have significance for other underdeveloped maritime arbitration systems. Also, based on these four key criteria, the thesis provides some specific suggestions on how the Chinese maritime arbitration system can be adapted to reflect other selected jurisdictions in the respects of some key issues of international commercial arbitration.

"Bu tez çalışması ile işletme yöneticilerinin ticari belge tanzim ve hukuki süreçlerine ilişkin bilgi ve algı düzeyleri ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. İşletme yöneticileri içinde faaliyet gösterdikleri ülkenin hukuki kurallarına göre iş piyasası ve iş hayatında faaliyet gösterirler. Ve bu kurallar ticari hayat içinde onlar için en önemli bağlayıcı normlardır. Bu çalışma ilgi ticaret hukukunun iş hayatında en önemli faaliyet ve uygulama alanı bulan ticari belge tanzimi ve hukuki süreçlerinin yöneticiler tarafından ne seviyede algılandığının ortaya konması amaçlanmıştır. Tez çalışma dört bölümden oluşturulmuştur. İlk bölümümüz giriş bölümüdür. İkinci bölümde yönetim konuları, ticari belgeye ilişkin hukuki argümanlara yer verilmiştir. Üçüncü bölüm uygulama bölümüdür. Dördüncü bölümde ise sonuç ve yorumlara yer verilmiştir. With this thesis, the level of knowledge and perception of business executives regarding the issuance and legal processes of commercial documents has been tried to be revealed. Business executives operate in the labor market and business life according to the legal rules of the country in which they operate. And these rules are the most important binding norms for them in commercial life. With this study, it is aimed to reveal the level of perception of commercial document arrangement and legal processes, which find the most important field of activity and application in business life, by managers. The study is composed of four parts. Our first part is the introduction. In the second part, administrative issues and legal arguments related to the commercial document are included. The third part is the implementation part. In the fourth section, results and comments are given."

This dissertation examines a multiplicity of factors that influence at the microeconomic level the level of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The main objective of the dissertation is to empirically explore and validate the effect of a select set of individual-level perceptual factors on FDI decisions. Given the paucity of research on the topic in comparison to macroeconomic studies of investment inflows between regions and countries, we conduct the study as a mixed-method study. The study consists of three interconnected empirical studies. The first seeks to identify the presence of factors that shape an individual’s decisions on FDI inflows. The two following ones seek to validate the effects of these factors on the individual decision maker's propensity to invest in a specific country. The first study belongs to a qualitative strand and answers the following research question: What are the investor’s critical perceptual factors and experiences that influence their FDI decisions? The study participants consisted of 30 foreign investors, the government’s Ministries, Departments, and Agencies (MDAs), and the Nigerian investors in the diaspora. The paper finds that on the supply side, several key FDI perception factors influence decision-making. On the demand side, there are four attractors and four repellents that influence potential investors' decisions. In the quantitative strand of the study, we offer the following questions: (1) To what extent do investment decision perception impact foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows? And (2) To what extent do the investors from Europe and North America and investors from Asia and Africa (the West and the East) influence what factors matter in foreign direct investment (FDI) decisions? The samples consist of 269 individuals from the private sector, both in Nigeria and in the diaspora that participated in the survey. I use structural equation modeling to find that Return on Investment (ROI), Security/Personal Safety, and Investment Facilitation Services have a significant direct effect on the FDI decisions. A post hoc exploratory analysis indicates positive relationships between Ease of Doing Business and Investment Promotion and FDI are significant for investors from the investors from Europe and North America as well as the negative impact of Corruption. In contrast, the positive relationship between Return-On-Investment and FDI is more substantial for investors from East Asia and Africa. The next part of the quantitative strand investigates (1) to what extent investment promotion services and Investment Facilitation effects in the receiving country shape positive investment decision outcomes, and (2) to what extent investment perceptions and related decisions vary across industry groups facing different investment horizons and risk levels. The analysis indicates that the Investment Promotion services significantly mediate Corruption Perceptions and Investment Facilitation services. And Investment Facilitation does moderate the effect of Investment Promotion. The exploratory industry-level analysis reveals that the effects of Return On Investment to FDI decisions and Security to FDI decisions significantly differ across Infrastructure-Mining/Services, Services/Agriculture-Manufacturing, and Agriculture-Manufacturing/Infrastructure-Mining industries suggesting significant Industry-level effects. Generally, these findings reveal much more refined and complex dynamics of FDI inflows and how individual investor’s perceptions shape them. Specifically, the results provide deeper insights into the investor’s risk perceptions that arise in a particular country. This depends on holistic perceptions of the country’s economic, political, and social environment, and also the investor’s time horizon and risk preferences signaling significant individual and situational differences in how decision-makers approach FDI.

The emergency arbitrator mechanism makes interim measures possible for parties involved in international commercial arbitration before the constitution of arbitral tribunals under urgent situations. However, with the development of the emergency arbitrator mechanism, the enforceability of interim measures made by an emergency arbitrator is questioned. This uncertainty leads to the hesitation of legal practitioners to apply the emergency arbitrator mechanism in practice. The research conducted two comparisons between different arbitration rules and between arbitration laws in jurisdictions. After discussing the legal status of an emergency arbitrator, the legal criteria to render interim measures, the potential barriers for the enforceability, and possible harmonization, it concluded that the interim measures granted by an emergency arbitrator in international commercial arbitration should be enforced and even harmonized through mandatory and non-mandatory methods.

أصبحت العقود النموذجية أكثر انتشارا في الآونة الأخيرة نظرا لما يتطلبه العصر الحالي من سرعة في المعاملات في أقصر مدة وأقل جهد مع تحقيق الغاية المراد الوصول إليها، وبالرغم أنها ليست عقودا بالمعنى الفني الدقيق بل مجرد شكل نموذجي يكون بحكم طبيعته قابل للتطبيق على علاقات قانونية غير محددة سلفا إلا أنها أصبحت تغطي جل أنواع المعاملات ولا تقتصر على نوع معين ولعل هذا مايميزها عن باقي العقود وجعلها ظاهرة تستحق البحث والدراسة لما تثيره من مشكلات كثيرة في الحياة العملية من حيث تكييفها والرقابة عليها ومدى الزاميتها، وتفسيرها هل يكون بالرجوع إلى البنود المطبوعة أو الى الإرادة الحقيقة للمتعاقدين، وطريقة إدماجها في العقود التي تبرم على منوالها هذا، وتعمل العقود النموذجية على توحيد الأنظمة القانونية التي تحكم العقود وتعتبر وسيلة ناجعة لعلاج جميع المشكلات المتعلقة بالعقود ولا سيما العقود المدنية والتجارية التي تنصب موضوعاتها على أمور فنية أو تقنية تتطور بسرعة كبيرة. باعتبارها أمر يواكب مقتضيات الوقت الحالي، هذا وتعد العقود النموذجية من الوسائل الفعالة في الرفع من سرعة التبادل وتوفير تكاليف التعاقد واختصار الوقت وتجنب الأخطاء الشائعة في العقود لما تتميز به من دقة ووضوح.

و في ھدا الصدد يتوجب على البنوك مرافقة أصحاب المشاريع الاستثمارية الدين استفادوا من قروض ضخمة في شتى مراحل الانجاز والاستغلال تكريسا لحق الرقابة البعدية للبنوك وفعاليتھا،وھذا ما يدخل في مھام عملھا المعتاد وحفاظا لحسن استغلال الأمثل الموارد المالية والتجسيد الفعلي والناجح للمشاريع،ودلك بھدف التقليل من حدة المخاطر التي تعتري البنوك بمناسبة منح القروض والتحكم فيھا أوتلك التي تعتري المشاريع الاستثمارية الھادفة إلى تحقيق التنمية الاقتصادية. وبمعنى أخر فان الاعتماد على الاستثمارات العمومية بفعل تمويل الخزينة العمومية بشكل كبير قد يضعف ويقزم تدخل البنوك في مجال التمويل الاستثماري سواء كان عمومي او أجنبي وھذا ما يجعل عمل البنكي عملا روتينيا لا يتماشى مع متطلبات الساحة الاقتصادية بل يكتفي بتسيير النشاط الكلاسيكي ومنح قروض معينة او محددة السقف المالي و بمخاطر اكبر يصعب التحكم فيھا و دلك على عكس المشاريع العمومية التي يكون فيھا الضامن ھو الدولة والتي تتصف بحدة اقل للمخاطر و ربحية أكثر، -إن قرار منح القرض لاسيما ذات الطابع الاستثماري والدي لديه اثر مباشر على التنمية ھو قرار واعي و مسؤول من جانب البنك لان ھدف ھدا الأخير ھو دعم المشاريع المربحة و الناجحة مھما كانت تكلفة الموارد المالية الممنوحة بحيث أن مسالة تقديم الضمان من طرف صاحب المشروع سواء كان عيني أو شخصي لا تكتسي في حقيقة الأمر أھمية بالغة بقدر ما يريد البنك جني ثمار تمويله لمشروع معين و جني معه الأرباح المادية خلال فترة عمر المشروع و بدرجة مخاطر اقل حدة ودلك استنادا لضوابط معينة و مدروسة مسبقا.

نظم المشرع الطريقة التي يتم بها إدارة وتسيير الشركات التجارية، حيث يتولاها أشخاص طبيعية أو جهازا جماعيا يتمتعون بالخبرة والسيادة الفعلية، وسلطة اتخاذ القرارات اللازمة لتحقيق غرض الشركة واعتماد أفضل الوسائل التي تحقق التوازن بين مصالح الجميع، إلا أن المسير قد ينحرف عن الغرض الذي اجتمع عليه الشركاء من خلال توجيه أموال الشركة ونشاطها لتحقيق مصالح شخصية على حساب مصلحة الشركة والشركاء والغير. وغالبا ماتكون هذه الممارسات التعسفية وغير المشروعة المرتكبة من قبل المسيرين ذات صبغة جنائية، بالرغم من أنهم يشترط فيهم النزاهة والمهنية والحياد والحرص على أداء مهامهم، لذلك وضع المشرع الجزائري والمصري كثيرا من النصوص القانونية لتجنب التعارض بين المصالح، منها النصوص الجنائية واردة في القوانين الجنائية والقوانين الإجتماعية والإقتصادية التي تقر بشكل صريح على قيام المسؤولية الجنائية للمسيرين عن أخطائهم الشخصية أو عن فعل الغير، وبهذا إن غاية المشرع في إقرار هذه المسؤولية إلزام المسير بالعناية اللازمة بأعمال الشركة وليس عرقلة حريته في ممارسة النشاط الإقتصادي، لذا يجب أن تكون الوقائع المنسوبة إليه محددة وواضحة حتى يسأل عنها.

قامت دراستنا على المنهج التحليلي المقارن بشكل رئيسي الذي من خلاله سعينا للوقوف عند جل النقاط التي يثيرها موضوع محل الدراسة باستجلاء قواعد نظرية عامة للعقد والتشريعات الخاصة سواء ضمن القانون الوطني أو القانون المقارن، سعيا لتحديد مضمونه أحكامه آثاره من جهة، وكذا البحث عن الضمانات الكفيلة لحماية السائح من مختلف الأضرار التي يمكن أن يتعرض لها خاصة أثناء تنفيذ الرحلة السياحية من جهة أخرى. إلا أنه وإن كان إخضاع العقد السياحي لأحكام النظرية العامة للعقد والتشريعات الخاصة مقبولا فيما سبق كونه كان مجرد من أي اعتبارات اقتصادية، إلا أنه اليوم أصبح يحتل مكانة لدرجة أنها تتجه نحو الشمول لتصبح ظاهرة انسانية متكاملة فلم تعد هذه القواعد كافية، فأصبح لازما من المشرع الجزائري التدخل لتحديد معالمه وأحكامه بنصوص تشريعية وتنظيمية خاصة تمس كافة جوانبه، كونه بات يشكل أحد العوامل المحركة للإقتصاد الوطني.

يدور المحور الرئيس للموضوع حول جريمة الإشهار الخادع دراسة مقارنة بين كل من التشريع الجزائري والفرنسي والمصري، حيث يمكن إعطاء تعريف لهذه الجريمة على أنها إعلان يتضمن عرضا، او بيانا أو إدعاء كاذب ومضلل، أو أي أمر يؤدي بطريقة مباشرة أو غير مباشرة إلى خلق إنطباع حقيق أو مضلل، أو تقديم معلومات غير دقيقة وبالتالي تؤدي إلى إنطباعات مخادعة تغري المستهلكين بالشراء بناءا على تلك المعلومات، لذلك عملت مختلف التشريعات على وضع ضوابط العمل في المجال الإشهاري وهو ماتصدى له المشرع الجزائري من خلال جملة من النصوص القانونية التي أوردها في كل من القانون رقم 04/02 المتعلق بالقواعد المطبقة على الممارسات الأنشطة التجارية لاسيما المادة 28 منه، بالإضافة إلى قانون العقوبات مع العلم أنه في الجزائر لا يوجد قانون خاص بالإشهار على عكس التشريعين الفرنسي والمصري حيث يوجد لديهم قانون خاص ينظم عملية الإشهار، ولمعرفة الحماية المكفولة للمستهلك منها سوفى نتولى دراستها من الجانب المدني أي الحماية المدنية ثم الشق الجزائي أي الحماية الجنائية.

إنّ خصوصية الركن المعنوي في القانون الجنائي الاقتصادي تبرز أساسا في طبيعة الاستثناء الذي يخرج عن القواعد العامّة المتعلقة بإثبات الركن المعنوي في الجرائم عامّة، إذ أنّ القاعدة العامّة ترى بضرورة تطلب الركن المعنوي( لا جريمة بدون خطأ)، لكن مادية الجريمة الاقتصادية تجعلها تتفرّد ببعض الآحكام الخاصّة، تعبير عن مرونة الإثبات الجنائي في المادة الاقتصادية، بداعي الحفاظ على النّظام العام الاقتصادي للدولة، وذلك لتوفير حماية قانونية أوسع، ولو على سبيل الحيطة والانتباه، فقيام المسؤولية الجنائية في هذا النّوع من الجرائم يقوم على أساس خطأ مفترض قد يتقرّر إمّا بواسطة المشرع، أو عن طريق القضاء.

随着世界经济全球化，国内外企业之间的商贸往来迅猛发展，出现商事争议与纠纷的案件也呈现上升趋势，仲裁以其高效、快速等优点成为解决国际商事纠纷的最终方式之一。本文从仲裁的优点入手，首先阐述了完整仲裁过程中各个关键环节及注意事项，然后用流程图和横道图两种形式体现了一个完整的仲裁过程，最后就国际工程项目仲裁管理给出了具体建议。 With the globalization of the world economy, the commercial exchanges between domestic and foreign enterprises are developing rapidly, and the number of commercial disputes cases is growing quickly. Considering its advantages of high efficiency and speed, arbitration has become one of the final ways to solve international commercial disputes. This paper firstly presents the advantages of arbitration, then expounds the key stages and attention during the whole arbitration process. Flow chart and Gantt chart are drawn to show logics of the process. Specific suggestions on the arbitration management of international projects are given at the end of the article.