Bibliographie sélective OHADA

This study examines Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) practices in Nigerian public sector organisations using a comprehensive mixed-methods approach. The data collection process involved analysing 185 organisation-year observations from annual reports spanning 2011–2020, as well as questionnaires distributed to key stakeholders and interviews with senior executives from various organisations.The analysis utilised a multi-pronged strategy, including quantitative techniques such as regression analysis to explore the relationship between CSR practices and corporate governance mechanisms and qualitative methods such as narrative analysis and thematic coding to gain insights from survey responses and interviews.The findings indicate that CSR practices in the Nigerian public sector are moving in a positive direction. Organisations demonstrated commitment to CSR activities, including community development, education, environmental conservation, and philanthropy. Survey results showed that 83% of organisations engaged in CSR, driven by community acceptance and moral obligation. Additionally, 84% of organisations complied with regulatory frameworks, and 79% aligned their CSR policies with national or international standards. The analysis also found a significant positive relationship between CSR practices and factors such as larger board sizes, greater board independence, the presence of women on the board, and CEOs with longer tenures, higher educational qualifications, and international exposure.By triangulating these findings, it is clear that organisations have a strong commitment to giving back through various CSR initiatives, such as humanitarian assistance, youth empowerment, and educational programmes. Despite challenges such as budgetary constraints and weak accountability frameworks, organisations recognise the perceived benefits of CSR, including increased public confidence, improved stakeholder perceptions, enhanced organisational reputation, trust-building, community engagement, and empowering marginalised communities through education.The insights gained from this study conducted in an emerging economy namely, Nigeria, provide a new understanding of CSR practices in public-sector organisations. They also highlight the proactive approach of public sector organisations towards responsible practices. Consequently, the implications of this research extend beyond national boundaries, encouraging diverse and dedicated leadership to enhance CSR efforts and create lasting social impact. Future studies could explore comparative analysis between the public and private sectors or different countries, as well as sector-specific impact assessments.

L’étude comparative de la protection juridique du patient en France et en Côte d’Ivoire, fait apparaître l’existence d’une reconnaissance commune d’un droit du patient à être protégé qui se traduit par un véritable statut juridique de celui-ci en tant que tel. Si dans les deux systèmes, le patient bénéficie d’une protection juridique fondée sur sa double qualité de personne humaine et de bénéficiaire de soins, au contenu évolutif face aux progrès scientifiques et aux lois bioéthiques, le contexte socio-culturel de chaque État conduit toutefois à une similitude qui n’est pas absolue. En France, les droits toujours plus nombreux reconnus au patient font de lui un véritable acteur de sa santé tant à l’égard du consentement qu’il doit exprimer que de l’information dont il est bénéficiaire. En Côte d’Ivoire, le paternalisme médical encore latent révèle que le patient est beaucoup plus passif à l’égard du professionnel de santé et de sa prise en charge. C’est ce même contexte socio-culturel qui permet de constater que l’efficacité de la protection juridique du patient n’est pas identique en France et en Côte d’Ivoire, ce qui rend sa protection différemment perfectible. Il existe en France un système de conciliation tout à fait original entre les règles de la responsabilité médicale et celles de l’indemnisation fondées sur la solidarité nationale, tandis que la responsabilité fondée sur la faute reste la seule voie offerte au patient en droit ivoirien. En outre, l’accès aux soins notamment avec le système d’assurance maladie n’a pas atteint ici et là le même degré de maturité. Par ailleurs, la juridicisation et la judiciarisation de la protection qui se développent en France ne se retrouvent pas de façon semblable en Côte d’Ivoire où le patient est beaucoup plus frileux à actionner le système judiciaire. Entre une protection toujours plus poussée sur le territoire français et une protection encore lacunaire en Côte d’Ivoire, l’idéal se trouverait sans doute dans un juste milieu. A comparative study of the legal protection of patients in France and Ivory Coast reveals the existence of a common recognition of a patient's right to protection, which translates into a genuine legal status for patients as such. While in both systems, patients benefit from legal protection based on their dual status as human beings and recipients of care, the content of which evolves in the light of scientific progress and bioethics laws, the socio-cultural context of each country nevertheless leads to a similarity that is not absolute. In France, the ever-increasing number of rights granted to patients makes them real players in their own health, both in terms of the consent they must give and the information they receive. In Ivory Coast, the still latent medical paternalism reveals that patients are much more passive towards the health professional and his care. It is this same socio-cultural context which allows to note that the effectiveness of legal protection for patients is not identical in France and Ivory Coast, which makes his protection differently perfectible. In France, there is a highly original system of reconciliation between the rules of medical liability and those of compensation based on national solidarity, whereas liability based on fault remains the only option available to patients under Ivorian law. In addition, access to healthcare, particularly through the health insurance system, has not reached the same degree of maturity everywhere. Furthermore, the legalization and judicialization of protection that are developing in France are not found in a similar way in Ivory Coast, where patients are much more reluctant to turn to the judicial system. Between the ever-increasing protection afforded in France and the gaps in protection in Ivory Coast, the ideal situation would undoubtedly be found in a happy medium.

The collection of value-added tax from the cross-border supply of digital goods remains a challenge for tax authorities around the world. South Africa is no different. The traditional methods of collecting VAT from the supply of digital goods relies on the honesty of the consumer and on the supplier to account for and remit VAT to the tax authorities in the jurisdiction where the goods are consumed. The traditional collection models are often unreliable, inefficient, burdensome, and expensive for the consumers and the suppliers. The adoption of blockchain technology as a model to collect VAT on the cross-border supply of digital goods has the potential to alleviate the compliance burden on consumers and suppliers of digital goods, improve the efficiency of tax administration, and reduce VAT fraud. Importantly, blockchain technology can create trust between tax authorities, suppliers of digital goods, and consumers. This thesis critically discusses the advantages and disadvantages of implementing blockchain technology for the collection of VAT on the cross-border supply of digital goods in South Africa. This thesis unpacks the consideration factors for policymakers in the implementation of blockchain technology for the collection of VAT on cross-border trade in digital goods. The thesis makes recommendations for the South African VAT Act to be amended to make provision for the collection of VAT by utilising blockchain technology.

A transferência de tecnologia e a capacitação tecnológica no Brasil são temas relevantes para o debate jurídico nacional, considerando a condição brasileira como país em desenvolvimento. Nesse contexto, a exploração do objeto do direito de patente de invenção em território brasileiro, prevista no art. 68, § 1o, inc. I, da Lei no 9.279/1996, ganha importância. Ao configurar-se como um dos requisitos para o licenciamento compulsório, esse instituto contribui para o alcance das finalidades dos direitos de propriedade intelectual estabelecidas no art. 5o, inc. XXIX, da Constituição Federal de 1988, quais sejam: o interesse social e o desenvolvimento econômico e tecnológico. A partir da matriz constitucional dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual, é possível identificar o trígono de finalidades traçadas pelo constituinte originário para esses direitos. Ademais, tais propósitos encontram-se ainda refletidos na Ordem Social brasileira, nos arts. 218 e 219 da Constituição Federal; pois são tarefas do Estado a promoção da inovação e da autonomia tecnológica. A Lei no 9.279/1996 guia-se pelos preceitos estatuídos na Carta Magna, concedendo proteção e privilégio temporário às invenções dotadas de novidade, atividade inventiva e aplicação industrial, nos termos do seu art. 8o. Destaca-se que a exclusividade só é justificada se estiver presente o contributo mínimo. Como é possível extrair dos textos legais, o Estado retira do mercado uma parcela de liberdade de atuação dos agentes econômicos, delegando a gestão privada dos bens a um só deles, com o objetivo de atingir a inovação. Por tais motivos, a legislação prevê uma ameaça aos titulares da patente que não explorem seus direitos dentro do país. A exploração no território brasileiro torna-se uma ferramenta à disposição dos países que não são desenvolvidos para o alcance da inovação. Assim, a presente dissertação propõe-se a relacionar o mecanismo da exploração local aos fins constitucionais e legais das patentes. Por meio de pesquisa qualitativa, aplicada, exploratória e bibliográfica e utilizando os métodos dedutivo e hipotético-dedutivo, este trabalho busca construir uma interpretação sobre a tensão entre acesso de agentes econômicos às tecnologias, exploração das patentes e garantia de exclusividade. O estudo observa que a exploração local é um recurso à disposição dos países em desenvolvimento para que se alcance a inovação e o desenvolvimento econômico e tecnológico. A atuação do Estado no domínio econômico, especialmente no campo dos direitos de propriedade intelectual, foi um recurso utilizado por países atualmente desenvolvidos para alcançar o atual estágio tecnológico em que se encontram. Por tal motivo, é possível que as nações em desenvolvimento utilizem o requisito da exploração obrigatória de patentes em território nacional para difundir avanços sociais, tecnológicos e econômicos. The transfer of technology and technological training within Brazil are relevant topics for the national legal debate, considering the Brazilian condition as a developing country. In this context, the local patent working requirement in Brazilian territory, provided for in art. 68, § 1, inc. I, of Law No. 9,279/1996, gains importance. By being one of the legal requirements for compulsory licensing, this institute contributes to the achievement of the purposes of intellectual property rights established in art. 5th, Inc. XXIX, of the Federal Constitution of 1988, namely: social interest and economic and technological development. From the constitutional matrix of Intellectual Property Rights, it is possible to identify the trigon of purposes traced by the original constituent for these rights. Furthermore, such purposes are still reflected in the Brazilian Social Order, in arts. 218 and 219 of the Federal Constitution; because it is the State\'s task to promote innovation and technological autonomy. Law no 9.279/1996 is guided by the precepts established in the Magna Carta, granting protection and temporary privilege to inventions endowed with novelty, inventive step and industrial application, under the terms of its art. 8th. It should be noted that exclusivity is only justified if the minimum contribution is present. As it is possible to extract from the legal texts, the State withdraws from the market a portion of the freedom of action of economic agents, delegating the private management of assets to one of them, with the objective of achieving innovation. For these reasons, the legislation poses a threat to patent holders who do not exploit their rights within the country. Exploration in Brazilian territory becomes a tool available to countries that are not developed to reach innovation. Thus, the present dissertation proposes to relate the mechanism of local working to the constitutional and legal purposes of patents. Through qualitative, applied, exploratory and bibliographic research and using deductive and hypothetico-deductive methods, this work seeks to build an interpretation of the tension between access of economic agents to technologies, patent local working and guarantee of exclusivity. The study notes that local exploration is a resource available to developing countries to achieve innovation and economic and technological development. The States action in the economic domain, especially in the field of intellectual property rights, was a tool used by currently developed countries to reach the current technological stage in which they find themselves. For this reason, it is possible for developing nations to use the requirement of mandatory exploitation of patents in national territory to disseminate social, technological and economic advances.

Cette réflexion se propose de contribuer au développement des modes amiables de règlement des différends dans la culture juridique béninoise afin de permettre aux justiciables, majoritairement analphabètes, d'avoir des alternatives opportunes aux voies judiciaires classiques. Tandis que la justice fait face à de nombreux défis, aussi bien en France qu'au Bénin, le développement et la promotion remarqués des modes amiables de règlement des différends connaissent un certain succès en la matière en France. Au Bénin, le législateur encourage, incite mais ne propose aucun régime particulier pour le recours effectif au règlement amiable des différends. Cette recherche tente ainsi d'examiner de façon approfondie et d'interroger les différends mécanismes législatifs existants, tant les enjeux en termes d'accès à la justice sont considérables. Les principaux enjeux de cette thèse sont donc liées aux perspectives du développement des mode amiables et à leur encadrement pour remédier aux insuffisances et contre-performances de la justice étatique béninoise.

Intervenant sur le même espace régional, les deux principales organisations de l’Afrique de l’ouest à savoir la Communauté Economique Des Etats d’Afrique de l’Ouest (CEDEAO) et l’Union Economique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine (UEMOA) partagent l’objectif de parvenir à la libre circulation des personnes. Pourtant, il est constamment relevé que les droits qui devraient faciliter cette mobilité sont loin d’être mis en œuvre et qu’un contraste subsiste entre l’objectif de parvenir à la réalisation effective du principe de la libre circulation des personnes et les pratiques qui traduisent un exercice limite de cette liberté. La présente étude a trait aux problématiques en lien avec la question migratoire en Afrique de l’ouest, rend compte de l’adéquation apparente du régime adopte par la CEDEAO et l’UEMOA a l’effet de doter le principe de la libre circulation des personnes d’une véritable assise juridique. Il apparait ainsi que la qualité de cet ensemble de normes découle aussi bien de la diversification des bénéficiaires que de la cohérence de son contenu. Toutefois, l’analyse des modalités de réalisation du régime mis en place révèle des imperfections tenant aussi bien à la construction incomplète, qu’à l’application ineffective du droit de la libre circulation des personnes dans l’espace CEDEAO -UEMOA. Au demeurant la présence de facteurs extra-juridiques découlant des divergences et incohérences observées dans les positions des acteurs notamment les Etats, les organisations régionales et les peuples ouest-africains, laisse entrevoir la persistance d’obstacles d’ordre pratique qui compromettent l’atteinte des objectifs. Il s’ensuit que la libre circulation des personnes dans l’espace CEDEAO -UEMOA doit être considéré comme un processus dynamique dont l’évolution dépend de la capacite de l’ensemble des acteurs à réinventer des réponses adaptées a la spécificité des problématiques et contexte ouest-africains.

مــلخص مذكرة الماستر تحتل الشركات التجارية في العصر الراهن أهمية بالغة في بناء وتنمية اقتصاد الدول، بحيث أصبحت تشكل دعامة لاستقرارها الاقتصادي، ولقد حظيت باهتمام المشرع الجزائري فنظم حياة الشركة في مختلف مراحلها بداية من تأسيسها وتسييرها إلى غاية انقضائها . إن الشركة باعتبارها شخصا معنويا تتأسس وتباشر نشاطها لتحقيق الغرض الذي أنشئت من أجله، فإنها معرضة لانقضائها ولحلها لأي سبب من أسباب الانقضاء، فتنتهي الرابطة القانونية التي تجمع بين الشركاء وتدخل في مرحل التصفية

Este trabalho tem por objetivo a análise da disciplina da alienação do estabelecimento empresarial na recuperação extrajudicial, especialmente quanto à ocorrência ou não da sucessão do adquirente nas obrigações do alienante. As normas que ensejam a sucessão do adquirente, durante o período de normalidade econômica, buscam proteger os credores, mas contêm desincentivos à celebração do negócio, que tendem a ser ainda maiores num cenário de crise do alienante, diante da perspectiva de que não lhe sobrarão bens bastantes para honrar suas obrigações. Diante disso, a disciplina da alienação do estabelecimento empresarial, na recuperação judicial e na falência, expressamente eliminou a sucessão do adquirente, atraindo maior número de interessados, com a maximização do valor dos ativos e a perspectiva de continuação da atividade, em benefício dos interesses sociais e econômicos que gravitam em torno da empresa, em especial dos empregados, fornecedores, consumidores e o Fisco. Mesmo após o advento da reforma operada pela Lei no 14.112/2020, contudo, não há, na disciplina da recuperação extrajudicial, uma norma clara afirmando a inocorrência de sucessão na alienação de estabelecimento empresarial. Isso explica a preferência pela recuperação judicial em detrimento da extrajudicial, uma solução mais simples, célere e barata para superação da crise do devedor, em benefício dele próprio, dos credores, stakeholders e do funcionamento da máquina judiciária. Daí porque o estudo da disciplina da sucessão na alienação do estabelecimento empresarial ganha especial importância. A depender de como ela for compreendida, o trespasse tanto poderá constituir instrumento de superação da crise e preservação da empresa (ainda que sob outra titularidade), ou ser completamente inviabilizado, em prejuízo dos interesses econômicos e sociais que poderiam ser por ele atendidos. This work focuses on the analysis of the Brazilian legal framework regarding the sale of business in out-of-court restructuring proceedings (known as extrajudicial restructuring), specifically concerning the occurrence or non-occurrence of debt succession from the debtor- seller to the purchaser (successor liability). The rules establishing successor liability for purchasers were drawn up to protect creditors during periods of economic normalcy. However, those rules contain disincentives to the business sale, which tend to be even greater during scenarios of crisis, given the debtors prospects of not having enough assets left to fulfil their obligations. In light of this, Brazilian regulation regarding business sale in judicial restructuring and bankruptcy proceedings explicitly exclude successor liability, attracting a greater number of interested parties, and maximizing asset value and the prospects of continuity for the business activity. All of this in benefit of the social and economic interests that gravitate around the company, especially employees, suppliers, consumers, and the Tax Authority. Nevertheless, even after the reform by Law No. 14,112/2020, there is no clear rule over extrajudicial restructuring stating the non-occurrence of successor liability in a business sale. This explains a preference for judicial over extrajudicial reorganisation, a simpler, faster, and less costly solution for overcoming the debtor\'s crisis, benefiting the debtor himself, the creditors, the stakeholders, and the Judiciarys functioning. Hence, the study of the regulation applied to successor liability in sales of business gains special importance. Depending on how this regulation is understood, the sale can either be a tool for overcoming crisis and preserving the company (even if under different ownership) or it can be made utterly unviable, damaging economic and social interests that could be protected by it.

Les entreprises sont souvent victimes des pratiques anticoncurrentielles de leurs concurrents, clients ou fournisseurs. Longtemps, elles ont été exclues des procédures alternatives qui se déroulent entre l’autorité de contrôle et les cartellistes. Récemment et de manière progressive, un statut a été ébauché. Le phénomène de fondamentalisation du droit des affaires et la jurisprudence en sont à l’origine. Cependant, la protection accordée demeure insuffisante. Pour l’améliorer et l’étendre, une modernisation de ces procédures, voire une réforme du système, peut être envisagée.

La compliance est une notion qui ne fait pas consensus : tantôt désignée comme une simple démarche de conformité de l’entreprise à la loi, tantôt comme une méthode d’efficacité de la loi, elle a pu être associée à la responsabilité sociétale des entreprises et à l’éthique des affaires. Son développement exponentiel ces dernières années dans le paysage législatif français et européen en diverses matières et divers codes a rendu nécessaire l’organisation de la compliance en une véritable matière, voire une nouvelle branche du droit, pour laquelle il convient d’identifier un système cohérent de normes avec une méthode et des principes propres et de dégager un régime uniforme.

يتميز مجال العقود والالتزامات بأهم عنصر من وهو التقابل والتماثل في الحقوق والواجبات التي ترد على كل طرف، غير أنه من بين الحقوق التي يتمتع بها الطرف المتعاقد في حال تقاعس الطرف المتعاقد معه عن التنفيذ أو الامتناع عن ذلك، هو ممارسة الحق في الحبس سواءً كان الحابس بائعاً أو مشتري. يرد الحق في الحبس على كافة الأشياء التي تكون قابلة للحجز والتنفيذ، ولعل عدم قابليته للتجزئة يعد من أهم الخصائص التي تجعل منه ضمانة حقيقية للوفاء بالديون أو لأداء الالتزامات المتفق عليها بموجب العقد. يندرج الحق في الحبس ضمن الوسائل الدفاعية للدائن يلجأ إليها تجاه المدين، وفق ما نص عليها القانون من جهة، وما تم الاتفاق عليه في العقد من جهة أخرى، حيث يتطلب هذا الحق في وجوده توفر مجموعة من الشروط، ويترتب عن إعماله العديد من الآثار القانونية السارية على أطراف العلاقة التعاقدية، وينقضي بوسائل شتى تندرج من حيث الأهمية والأولوية في التطبيق بين الأصل والاستثناء.

L’objectif de cette thèse consiste à s’interroger sur la pertinence et la possibilité de mettre en place des mécanismes et des outils juridiques permettant de dépasser les faiblesses du régime classique de responsabilité internationale des États, fondé sur la responsabilité pour fait internationalement illicite, et de s’orienter vers une nouvelle théorie de la responsabilité des États en matière de délinquance environnementale transfrontalière fondée sur la responsabilité objective sans faute des États, plus efficiente en matière environnementale. L’évolution de la théorie de la responsabilité internationale des États vers un système objectif tenant compte de la spécificité du dommage écologique permettrait en effet d’améliorer la protection pénale de l’environnement contre la délinquance environnementale transfrontalière, qui ne cesse de se développer à un rythme plus rapide que la progression des mécanismes de protection environnementale. Compte tenu de l’impunité des atteintes graves à l’environnement, non seulement à la suite d’activités licites à risque, mais encore via la progression exponentielle de la délinquance écologique transfrontalière, la reconnaissance d’une infraction environnementale par la communauté internationale n’est plus une utopie et devient progressivement indispensable. Dans cette optique, la notion d’écocide pourrait être explorée, car elle désigne, selon un consensus certes encore flou, mais néanmoins convergent, l’infraction contre l’environnement considérée aujourd’hui comme étant la plus grave qui puisse être, dans la mesure où elle met en danger la sûreté de la planète et la survie de l’humanité. L’apport de cette thèse consiste à envisager une responsabilité internationale environnementale des États adaptée à la nature des dommages écologiques graves et irréversibles provoqués par la délinquance écologique transfrontalière, via la mise en place de mécanismes juridiques et institutionnels spécifiques permettant d’assurer une protection efficace de l’environnement à l’échelle planétaire. The objective of this thesis consists of questioning the relevance and the possibility of putting in place legal mechanisms and tools to overcome the weaknesses of the classic regime of international responsibility of States, based on responsibility for internationally wrongful acts, and to move towards a new theory of State responsibility with regard to cross-border environmental crime based on the objective liability without fault of States, more efficient in environmental matters. The evolution of the theory of international responsibility of States towards an objective system taking into account the specificity of ecological damage would indeed make it possible to improve the criminal protection of the environment against cross-border environmental delinquency, which continues to develop a faster pace than the progression of environmental protection mechanisms. Given the impunity for serious environmental crimes, not only following legal risky activities, but also through the exponential progression of cross-border ecological delinquency, the recognition of an environmental offense by the international community It's no longer a utopia and is gradually becoming essential. From this perspective, the notion of ecocide could be explored, because it designates, according to a consensus that is certainly still vague, but nevertheless convergent, the offense against the environment considered today to be the most serious that can be, in the to the extent that it endangers the safety of the planet and the survival of humanity.The contribution of this thesis consists of considering an international environmental responsibility of States adapted to the nature of the serious and irreversible ecological damage caused by cross-border ecological delinquency, via the establishment of specific legal and institutional mechanisms to ensure effective protection. Of the environment on a global scale.

A arbitragem é um meio de resolução de litígios, que se alicerça na autonomia privada e é reconhecida, quer internacionalmente, quer nas constituições estaduais analisadas, como um modo de exercício, alternativo aos tribunais estaduais, do direito fundamental constitucional à tutela jurisdicional efetiva. A questão que se coloca é a de saber se, em primeiro lugar, as partes podem acordar renunciar, validamente, a direitos fundamentais processuais na arbitragem e, podendo, com que requisitos e dentro de que limites, para, em segundo lugar e em particular, aplicar os requisitos e limites referidos à (in)admissibilidade da renúncia ao direito a requerer a anulação da sentença arbitral na arbitragem internacional. Partindo da ponderação do âmbito, conteúdo e regime dos direitos fundamentais em confronto, de um lado, à tutela jurisdicional efetiva, incluindo o direito à arbitragem e outros direitos fundamentais processuais, como o de impugnar a sentença arbitral em determinados casos e, do outro lado, à autonomia privada, que fundamenta a renúncia, e sem prejuízo de a ponderação dever ser feita em cada caso concreto, concluo que a renúncia àqueles direitos é válida, se cumprir determinados requisitos subjetivos e objetivos, que identifico, incluindo os limites e os respetivos critérios para aferir da referida (in)validade. Quanto ao direito a requerer a anulação da sentença arbitral na arbitragem internacional, concluo que, sem prejuízo e com base nas soluções consagradas de jure constituto, a renúncia por acordo das partes é, do ponto de vista constitucional normativo e, de jure constituendo no direito português, válida, desde que se respeitem aqueles requisitos. Em particular, tem de existir um meio de impugnar a sentença arbitral, quando esta viole, de forma grave, direitos fundamentais processuais e/ou interesses de ordem pública de cada Estado, que não estão na disponibilidade das partes, nos casos e termos necessários a garantir o conteúdo essencial do direito fundamental à tutela jurisdicional efetiva. No entanto, há margem do legislador para adotar o regime mais adequado ao propósito referido. Na arbitragem internacional, do ponto de vista normativo-constitucional, podem as partes renunciar, total e/ou parcialmente, à anulação na sede, quando há a possibilidade de controlo último, pelo menos de violações graves de direitos fundamentais processuais e/ou interesses de ordem pública de cada Estado, aquando do reconhecimento e execução da sentença arbitral, sendo esta a solução legal que, na minha opinião, melhor se coaduna com a arbitragem internacional no seu todo. Arbitration is a dispute resolution mechanism rooted in private autonomy and internationally recognised, as well as in the national constitutions analysed, as an alternative means to state courts for exercising the constitutional fundamental right to effective judicial protection. The primary question of this dissertation is whether the parties can validly agree to waive fundamental procedural rights in arbitration, and if so, under what conditions and within what limits. Secondly, I specifically apply these conditions and limits to the (in)admissibility of waiving the right to seek annulment of the arbitral award in international arbitration. By weighing the scope, content and framework of conflicting fundamental rights – the right to effective judicial protection (encompassing the right to arbitration and other fundamental procedural rights, such as the right to challenge the arbitral award in certain cases), against private autonomy (which justifies the waiver) – and, without prejudice to the necessary case-by-case balancing, I conclude that the waiver of these rights is valid, provided that subjective and objective requirements, including the limits and criteria for assessing the (in)validity of the waiver, are met. Regarding the right to request annulment of the arbitral award in international arbitration, I conclude that, without prejudice to and relying on legal solutions established de jure constituto, the waiver by agreement of the parties is valid from a normative constitutional perspective and de jure constituendo under Portuguese Law, provided such subjective and objective requirements are respected. Specifically, there must be a means to challenge the arbitral award when it seriously violates fundamental procedural rights and/or public order interests of each State, which are beyond the parties’ disposal, in certain cases and under certain terms as necessary to protect the core essence of the fundamental right to effective judicial protection. However, the legislator retains discretion to adopt the most appropriate legal framework for this purpose. In the context of international arbitration, from a normative-constitutional perspective, the parties may waive annulment at the seat, in whole and/or in part, provided there is the possibility of ultimate oversight, particularly in cases involving serious violations of fundamental procedural rights and/or public order interests of each State at the stage of recognition and enforcement of the arbitral award. In my opinion, this legal solution is the one that best aligns with the global system of international arbitration.

يعد التضامن مبدأ من مبادئ القانون التجاري، وأحد أهم الضمانات التي يعتمدها قانون الصرف من أجل حصول حامل الورقة التجارية على قيمتها عند ميعاد استحقاقها، إذ يحق لهذا الأخير الرجوع على أي موقع أو على جميع الموقعين بكامل قيمة الورقة التجارية. تعد الأ وراق التجارية من وسائل الدفع التي تقوم مقام النقود في الوفاء، فهي تؤدي نفس الوظيفة التي تؤديها النقود، كما وأنها قابلة للتداول، ونظرا لأهمية هذه الأوراق في المعاملات التجارية ولكي تقوم فعلا مقام النقود في الوفاء فقد أحاطها المشرع الجزائري بمجموعة من الضمانات حماية للثقة والائتمان القائم بين التجار،ويعتبر التضامن الصرفي من أهم هذه الضمانات؛ إذ يحمي حامل الورقة التجارية ويشعره بالأمان والطمأنينة، والذي يجعل كل موقع عليها ضامنا للوفاء عند امتناع المسحوب عليه وبذلك يمكن للحامل الرجوع على الملتزمين الصرفيين منفردين أو مجتمعين والمطالبة بقيمة الورقة التجارية سواء كان ذلك في ميعاد استحقاقها أم قبل ذلك الميعاد، فكل موقع عليها يكون مسؤولا على وجه التضامن مع الملتزمين الآخرين Solidarity is one of the principles of commercial law, and one of the most important guarantees adopted by the exchange law in order for the holder of the commercial paper to obtain its value when it is due, as the latter has the right to recourse to any signatory or to all signatories for the full value of the commercial paper. Commercial papers are considered a means of payment that takes the place of money in fulfillment. They perform the same function that money performs, and they are also negotiable. Given the importance of these papers in commercial transactions, and in order for them to actually take the place of money in fulfillment, the Algerian legislator has surrounded them with a set of guarantees to protect trust and credit. existing between merchants, and exchange solidarity is considered one of the most important of these guarantees. It protects the holder of the commercial paper and makes him feel safe and reassured, which makes every signatory of it a guarantor of payment in the event of the drawee’s refusal. Thus, the holder can return to the exchange obligors individually or jointly and claim the value of the commercial paper, whether that is on its maturity date or before that date. Each signatory of it is responsible. In solidarity with other committed people.

Taxpayer confidentiality and its implications (if any), on illegal miners

La Cour pénale internationale a été créée dans un but à la fois de répression et de réparation. Ces deux objectifs continuent de se concrétiser et sont clairement devenus indissociables de toute définition qu’on pourrait donner à la CPI. Cependant, si une égalité apparente pourrait exister entre ces deux objectifs, l’effectivité de la réparation s’est montrée, à bien des égards, dépendante de l’effectivité de la répression. La décision du 1er juillet 2016 rendue dans l’affaire Ruto et Sang a confirmé et renforcer cette dépendance. Malheureusement, les victimes sont celles qui paient le plus de frais de cette réalité. Il devient donc urgent pour la CPI de régler cette situation, ne serait-ce que pour offrir plus d’espoir aux victimes. Le salut pourrait venir d’une remise en cause des principes régissant les procédures devant la Cour. Sans rien inventer, la CPI pourrait grandement s’inspirer de certaines pratiques étatiques. D’abord, il pourrait être envisagé de dissocier et de rendre autonomes les procédures qui visent la condamnation pénale et celles qui visent la réparation, de sorte à rendre l’absence de condamnation pénale inopportune pour la détermination de la responsabilité civile de l’accusé. De plus, il pourrait être envisagé des alternatives lorsqu’il n’y a pas de civilement responsable, de sorte à offrir une reconnaissance juridique aux victimes et à leur donner une ordonnance de réparation. En ce sens, la CPI gagnerait peut-être à aller au-delà de la responsabilité individuelle. Enfin, les États devraient être mis un peu plus à contribution en renforçant leurs obligations respectives à l’égard des victimes. The International Criminal Court was created for the purpose of both repression and reparation. These two objectives continue to materialize and have clearly become inseparable from any definition of the ICC. However, if an apparent equality could exist between them, the effectiveness of reparation has been shown, in many aspects, to be dependent on the effectiveness of repression. The July 1st, 2016 decision in the Ruto and Sang case confirmed and reinforced this dependence. Unfortunately, the victims are the ones who bear the brunt of this reality. It is therefore becoming urgent for the ICC to resolve this situation to offer more hope to victims. This could come from questioning the principles governing procedures before the Court. Without inventing anything, the ICC could greatly draw inspiration from certain State practices. First, consideration could be given to dissociating and making independent the procedures aimed at criminal conviction and those aimed at reparation, so as to make the absence of criminal conviction inappropriate for the determination of the civil liability of the accused. In addition, it could be considered other alternatives when there is no civil liability, such as offering legal recognition to victims by giving them a reparation order. In this sense, the ICC might benefit from going beyond individual responsibility. Finally, States should be made a little more involved by strengthening their respective obligations towards victims.

Bien que l'intelligence artificielle ait émergé dans les années 1950, elle n'a été considérée comme un objet juridique que récemment. Le récent vote du règlement IA par les institutions de l'Union européenne représente un jalon crucial vers l'établissement d'un cadre juridique spécifique à l'IA. Cette étude vise à explorer le parcours ayant conduit à l'adoption de ce règlement européen sur l'IA. Nous avançons que l'histoire de l'IA révèle d'importantes contradictions juridiques. Sa nature évolutive et la diversité des discours entourant sa science fondamentale, l'informatique, sont aussi cruciales que les développements techniques ayant mené à sa création. Cette complexité a persisté dans les efforts pour définir juridiquement l'IA. L'Union européenne a rencontré des difficultés pour préciser ce qu'est l'IA et pour formuler un régime réglementaire adéquat, mettant en lumière le défi de marier les approches fondées sur les risques et les droits dans sa régulation. Nous proposons de redéfinir l'IA en tant qu'objet sociotechnique et suggérons une série de mesures pour équilibrer le règlement IA entre les approches basées sur les droits et les risques.

This dissertation is about dualities or dichotomies. In particular it investigates the interrelationships between two couple of dichotomies, the dichotomy between international and transnational crimes and the duality of land and sea as geographical and jurisdictional spaces in the attempt to answer the question of who does or should exercise its jus puniendi in case of maritime crimes of international concern. This dissertation is about dualities or dichotomies. In particular it investigates the interrelationships between two couple of dichotomies, the dichotomy between international and transnational crimes and the duality of land and sea as geographical and jurisdictional spaces in the attempt to answer the question of who does or should exercise its jus puniendi in case of maritime crimes of international concern.

The present study aimed to identify the duties – expressed and implicit – that arise for transnational companies when their economic activities are conducted on indigenous lands or have an impact on them. To this end, identified the most recurrent violations of indigenous peoples' interests regarding the commercial exploitation of their lands or surroundings. Adopting the context of the Krenak people, it was identified that the Krenak, similar to other indigenous peoples, have experienced conflicts on multiple fronts due to large scale projects affecting their territoriality, access to natural resources (with prejudice to their subsistence), and their very way of life and existence. Reflecting on the commitment made to by political entities and their respective branches with the enactment of the Federal Constitution of 1988, the constitutional provisions were interpreted from a historical perspective. It was identified that economic exploitation of indigenous lands -contingent upon legislation - shall, if enacted (because it is not a constitutional duty but a mere possibility), adhere to the criteria previously outlined in the Constitution, including consultation with the peoples concerned, authorization by the National Congress, and the right to participate in the results of the extraction. Furthermore, the principles derived from these criteria include the exceptional nature of exploration, preservation of indigenous wealth - both material and immaterial - and recognition of indigenous thought as a decisive element. It was concluded that these principles entail an extensive list of duties for transnational companies concerning indigenous peoples, which must be implemented with consideration for indigenous worldviews - an underlying assumption for the application of indigenous rights. This list is not static; rather, it should evolve with human rights developments and ensure the ability to address new challenges arising from the relationship between transnational companies and indigenous peoples.

L'opportunité des poursuites est un principe qui permet au procureur de la république, après vérification de la constitution d'une infraction, de poursuivre ou non le délinquant en fonction des données de fait qu'il apprécie souverainement dans chaque affaire. En droit français tout comme en droit béninois, ce principe n'est nulle part formulé expressément. Mais l'article 40 alinéa 1 du code de procédure pénale français et l'article 38 du code procédure pénale béninois disposent que « Le procureur de la république reçoit les plaintes et les dénonciations et apprécie la suite à leur donner ». Cette formule peut être interprétée comme accordant à ce magistrat le pouvoir d'apprécier les poursuites. Ainsi, le législateur reconnait au procureur de la république un pouvoir d'appréciation. L'opportunité des poursuites est donc un privilège, une prérogative, une faculté, un pouvoir d'appréciation souveraine qui ne peut engager sa responsabilité. Elle joue au stade de l'engagement des poursuites. De cette appréciation, peut naître soit deux décisions, soit trois, selon qu'on soit en droit béninois ou selon qu'on soit en droit français. En droit béninois, le procureur peut à l'issue de la mise en œuvre de son pouvoir d'appréciation, décider de poursuivre ou de classer sans suite. Le législateur français quant à lui, outre ces deux possibilités, permet au procureur de la république de mettre en œuvre des mesures alternatives de poursuite. Il peut s'agir soit d'une médiation pénale ou d'une composition pénale. La décision de poursuite peut être mise en œuvre par une procédure de flagrant délit, par une saisine du juge d'instruction, par une citation directe, ou par une procédure de crime flagrant. La décision de classement sans suite est une décision administrative, elle n'est pas motivée, et est non susceptible de voies de recours. Cependant elle peut faire l'objet d'un recours hiérarchique devant le procureur général. Plusieurs arguments sont avancés pour justifier ce principe. Il s'agit - L'individualisation du criminel - Du maintien de l'ordre public - La Gestion efficiente et souple du tribunal - Du désengorgement des maisons d'arrêts. Malgré ces avantages, force est de constater que de nombreuses critiques peuvent être faites à ce système. - D'abord l'application de ce principe ouvre la voie à l'arbitraire : En effet, le procureur de la république de par sa décision de classement sans suite se comporte exactement comme un juge. Plus qu'une décision administrative, le classement sans suite peut être une véritable décision au fond d'abandon de charges car l'infraction étant bien constituée. Donc assimilable à une véritable décision juridictionnelle parce que traitant des questions de libertés. - Ensuite, elle ouvre la voie à l'injustice : Le principe de l'opportunité des poursuites conduit à une application à géométrie variable de la loi. Le procureur peut décider à la tête du client, ce qui rompt l'égalité devant la loi. Ces deux reproches majeurs ont été également dénoncés par le rapport Refonder la justice : Ce qui a conduit le groupe de travail à proposer une réforme du statut du ministère public. Outre ces critiques majeurs, l'on constate également que les justificatifs évoqués par les partisans de l'opportunité des poursuites sont vraiment impertinents. - D'abord l'impertinence du désengorgement des maisons d'arrêts : On considère que le désengorgement des maisons d'arrêts est une illusion parce la poursuite pénale n'appelle pas systématiquement le décernement d'un mandat de dépôt (c'est à dire que la poursuite ne se résout pas systématiquement à la détention provisoire). En outre, le principe qui gouverne la poursuite en matière pénale est la liberté et l'exception la détention. Ensuite l'impertinence du maintien d'ordre public : On considère également que l'argument du maintien d'ordre est impertinent parce que le pouvoir exécutif à l'armée et la police pour maintenir l'ordre. The opportunity for prosecution is a principle that allows the public prosecutor, after verification of the constitution of an offense, to pursue or not the offender according to the factual data that he sovereignly appreciates in each case. In French law as in Beninese law, this principle is nowhere expressly formulated. However, Article 40 paragraph 1 of the French Code of Criminal Procedure and Article 38 of the Penal Procedure Code of Benin stipulate that "the public prosecutor receives complaints and denunciations and assesses the follow-up to be given to them". This formula can be interpreted as granting this magistrate the power to assess the prosecution. Thus, the legislator recognizes to the public prosecutor of the republic a discretionary power. The opportunity for prosecution is thus a privilege, a prerogative, a faculty, a sovereign power of appraisal which can not engage its responsibility. It is at the stage of prosecution. From this assessment, there may be two decisions, three, according to whether one is in Beninese law or according to whether one is in French law. Under Beninese law, the prosecutor may, after the exercise of his discretion, decide to proceed or to classify without further action. The French legislator, in addition to these two possibilities, allows the prosecutor of the republic to implement alternative measures of prosecution. It can be either a criminal mediation or a criminal composition. The decision to prosecute can be implemented by a flagrante delicto procedure, a referral to the investigating judge, a direct summons, or a flagrant crime procedure. The decision to take no action is an administrative decision, it is not motivated, and is not subject to appeal. However, it may be the subject of a hierarchical appeal before the Attorney General. Several arguments are put forward to justify this principle. It's about: - Individualization of the criminal - The maintenance of public order - Efficient and flexible court management - The disengagement of the arresting houses. Despite these advantages, it is clear that many criticisms can be made of this system. - First, the application of this principle opens the way to arbitrariness: Indeed, the prosecutor of the republic of his decision of classification without follow-up behaves exactly like a judge. More than an administrative decision, the classification without follow-up can be a genuine decision on the merits of abandonment of charges because the offense being well constituted. Therefore, it is tantamount to a genuine jurisdictional decision because it deals with questions of freedoms. - Then it opens the way to injustice: The principle of the suitability of prosecution leads to a variable geometry application of the law. The prosecutor can decide at the head of the client, which breaks the equality before the law. These two major criticisms were also denounced by the report Refond la justice: This led the working group to propose a reform of the statute of the prosecution. In addition to these major criticisms, we also find that the justifications evoked by the proponents of the suitability of prosecution are really impertinent. First, the impertinence of the disengagement of the houses of arrest: It is considered that the relapse of arrest houses is an illusion because criminal prosecution does not systematically call for the warrant to be waived (ie the prosecution does not systematically resolve pre-trial detention). Moreover, the principle governing prosecution in criminal matters is freedom and the exception of detention. Then the impertinence of the maintenance of public order: It is also considered that the argument of maintaining order is impertinent because the executive power to the army and the police to maintain order. - Then the impertinence of the role of the courts: For the developing countries, it is estimated that this allows to respect the ratio judge / inhabitant.