Bibliographie sélective OHADA

La compliance est une notion qui ne fait pas consensus : tantôt désignée comme une simple démarche de conformité de l’entreprise à la loi, tantôt comme une méthode d’efficacité de la loi, elle a pu être associée à la responsabilité sociétale des entreprises et à l’éthique des affaires. Son développement exponentiel ces dernières années dans le paysage législatif français et européen en diverses matières et divers codes a rendu nécessaire l’organisation de la compliance en une véritable matière, voire une nouvelle branche du droit, pour laquelle il convient d’identifier un système cohérent de normes avec une méthode et des principes propres et de dégager un régime uniforme.

يتميز مجال العقود والالتزامات بأهم عنصر من وهو التقابل والتماثل في الحقوق والواجبات التي ترد على كل طرف، غير أنه من بين الحقوق التي يتمتع بها الطرف المتعاقد في حال تقاعس الطرف المتعاقد معه عن التنفيذ أو الامتناع عن ذلك، هو ممارسة الحق في الحبس سواءً كان الحابس بائعاً أو مشتري. يرد الحق في الحبس على كافة الأشياء التي تكون قابلة للحجز والتنفيذ، ولعل عدم قابليته للتجزئة يعد من أهم الخصائص التي تجعل منه ضمانة حقيقية للوفاء بالديون أو لأداء الالتزامات المتفق عليها بموجب العقد. يندرج الحق في الحبس ضمن الوسائل الدفاعية للدائن يلجأ إليها تجاه المدين، وفق ما نص عليها القانون من جهة، وما تم الاتفاق عليه في العقد من جهة أخرى، حيث يتطلب هذا الحق في وجوده توفر مجموعة من الشروط، ويترتب عن إعماله العديد من الآثار القانونية السارية على أطراف العلاقة التعاقدية، وينقضي بوسائل شتى تندرج من حيث الأهمية والأولوية في التطبيق بين الأصل والاستثناء.

L’objectif de cette thèse consiste à s’interroger sur la pertinence et la possibilité de mettre en place des mécanismes et des outils juridiques permettant de dépasser les faiblesses du régime classique de responsabilité internationale des États, fondé sur la responsabilité pour fait internationalement illicite, et de s’orienter vers une nouvelle théorie de la responsabilité des États en matière de délinquance environnementale transfrontalière fondée sur la responsabilité objective sans faute des États, plus efficiente en matière environnementale. L’évolution de la théorie de la responsabilité internationale des États vers un système objectif tenant compte de la spécificité du dommage écologique permettrait en effet d’améliorer la protection pénale de l’environnement contre la délinquance environnementale transfrontalière, qui ne cesse de se développer à un rythme plus rapide que la progression des mécanismes de protection environnementale. Compte tenu de l’impunité des atteintes graves à l’environnement, non seulement à la suite d’activités licites à risque, mais encore via la progression exponentielle de la délinquance écologique transfrontalière, la reconnaissance d’une infraction environnementale par la communauté internationale n’est plus une utopie et devient progressivement indispensable. Dans cette optique, la notion d’écocide pourrait être explorée, car elle désigne, selon un consensus certes encore flou, mais néanmoins convergent, l’infraction contre l’environnement considérée aujourd’hui comme étant la plus grave qui puisse être, dans la mesure où elle met en danger la sûreté de la planète et la survie de l’humanité. L’apport de cette thèse consiste à envisager une responsabilité internationale environnementale des États adaptée à la nature des dommages écologiques graves et irréversibles provoqués par la délinquance écologique transfrontalière, via la mise en place de mécanismes juridiques et institutionnels spécifiques permettant d’assurer une protection efficace de l’environnement à l’échelle planétaire. The objective of this thesis consists of questioning the relevance and the possibility of putting in place legal mechanisms and tools to overcome the weaknesses of the classic regime of international responsibility of States, based on responsibility for internationally wrongful acts, and to move towards a new theory of State responsibility with regard to cross-border environmental crime based on the objective liability without fault of States, more efficient in environmental matters. The evolution of the theory of international responsibility of States towards an objective system taking into account the specificity of ecological damage would indeed make it possible to improve the criminal protection of the environment against cross-border environmental delinquency, which continues to develop a faster pace than the progression of environmental protection mechanisms. Given the impunity for serious environmental crimes, not only following legal risky activities, but also through the exponential progression of cross-border ecological delinquency, the recognition of an environmental offense by the international community It's no longer a utopia and is gradually becoming essential. From this perspective, the notion of ecocide could be explored, because it designates, according to a consensus that is certainly still vague, but nevertheless convergent, the offense against the environment considered today to be the most serious that can be, in the to the extent that it endangers the safety of the planet and the survival of humanity.The contribution of this thesis consists of considering an international environmental responsibility of States adapted to the nature of the serious and irreversible ecological damage caused by cross-border ecological delinquency, via the establishment of specific legal and institutional mechanisms to ensure effective protection. Of the environment on a global scale.

A arbitragem é um meio de resolução de litígios, que se alicerça na autonomia privada e é reconhecida, quer internacionalmente, quer nas constituições estaduais analisadas, como um modo de exercício, alternativo aos tribunais estaduais, do direito fundamental constitucional à tutela jurisdicional efetiva. A questão que se coloca é a de saber se, em primeiro lugar, as partes podem acordar renunciar, validamente, a direitos fundamentais processuais na arbitragem e, podendo, com que requisitos e dentro de que limites, para, em segundo lugar e em particular, aplicar os requisitos e limites referidos à (in)admissibilidade da renúncia ao direito a requerer a anulação da sentença arbitral na arbitragem internacional. Partindo da ponderação do âmbito, conteúdo e regime dos direitos fundamentais em confronto, de um lado, à tutela jurisdicional efetiva, incluindo o direito à arbitragem e outros direitos fundamentais processuais, como o de impugnar a sentença arbitral em determinados casos e, do outro lado, à autonomia privada, que fundamenta a renúncia, e sem prejuízo de a ponderação dever ser feita em cada caso concreto, concluo que a renúncia àqueles direitos é válida, se cumprir determinados requisitos subjetivos e objetivos, que identifico, incluindo os limites e os respetivos critérios para aferir da referida (in)validade. Quanto ao direito a requerer a anulação da sentença arbitral na arbitragem internacional, concluo que, sem prejuízo e com base nas soluções consagradas de jure constituto, a renúncia por acordo das partes é, do ponto de vista constitucional normativo e, de jure constituendo no direito português, válida, desde que se respeitem aqueles requisitos. Em particular, tem de existir um meio de impugnar a sentença arbitral, quando esta viole, de forma grave, direitos fundamentais processuais e/ou interesses de ordem pública de cada Estado, que não estão na disponibilidade das partes, nos casos e termos necessários a garantir o conteúdo essencial do direito fundamental à tutela jurisdicional efetiva. No entanto, há margem do legislador para adotar o regime mais adequado ao propósito referido. Na arbitragem internacional, do ponto de vista normativo-constitucional, podem as partes renunciar, total e/ou parcialmente, à anulação na sede, quando há a possibilidade de controlo último, pelo menos de violações graves de direitos fundamentais processuais e/ou interesses de ordem pública de cada Estado, aquando do reconhecimento e execução da sentença arbitral, sendo esta a solução legal que, na minha opinião, melhor se coaduna com a arbitragem internacional no seu todo. Arbitration is a dispute resolution mechanism rooted in private autonomy and internationally recognised, as well as in the national constitutions analysed, as an alternative means to state courts for exercising the constitutional fundamental right to effective judicial protection. The primary question of this dissertation is whether the parties can validly agree to waive fundamental procedural rights in arbitration, and if so, under what conditions and within what limits. Secondly, I specifically apply these conditions and limits to the (in)admissibility of waiving the right to seek annulment of the arbitral award in international arbitration. By weighing the scope, content and framework of conflicting fundamental rights – the right to effective judicial protection (encompassing the right to arbitration and other fundamental procedural rights, such as the right to challenge the arbitral award in certain cases), against private autonomy (which justifies the waiver) – and, without prejudice to the necessary case-by-case balancing, I conclude that the waiver of these rights is valid, provided that subjective and objective requirements, including the limits and criteria for assessing the (in)validity of the waiver, are met. Regarding the right to request annulment of the arbitral award in international arbitration, I conclude that, without prejudice to and relying on legal solutions established de jure constituto, the waiver by agreement of the parties is valid from a normative constitutional perspective and de jure constituendo under Portuguese Law, provided such subjective and objective requirements are respected. Specifically, there must be a means to challenge the arbitral award when it seriously violates fundamental procedural rights and/or public order interests of each State, which are beyond the parties’ disposal, in certain cases and under certain terms as necessary to protect the core essence of the fundamental right to effective judicial protection. However, the legislator retains discretion to adopt the most appropriate legal framework for this purpose. In the context of international arbitration, from a normative-constitutional perspective, the parties may waive annulment at the seat, in whole and/or in part, provided there is the possibility of ultimate oversight, particularly in cases involving serious violations of fundamental procedural rights and/or public order interests of each State at the stage of recognition and enforcement of the arbitral award. In my opinion, this legal solution is the one that best aligns with the global system of international arbitration.

يعد التضامن مبدأ من مبادئ القانون التجاري، وأحد أهم الضمانات التي يعتمدها قانون الصرف من أجل حصول حامل الورقة التجارية على قيمتها عند ميعاد استحقاقها، إذ يحق لهذا الأخير الرجوع على أي موقع أو على جميع الموقعين بكامل قيمة الورقة التجارية. تعد الأ وراق التجارية من وسائل الدفع التي تقوم مقام النقود في الوفاء، فهي تؤدي نفس الوظيفة التي تؤديها النقود، كما وأنها قابلة للتداول، ونظرا لأهمية هذه الأوراق في المعاملات التجارية ولكي تقوم فعلا مقام النقود في الوفاء فقد أحاطها المشرع الجزائري بمجموعة من الضمانات حماية للثقة والائتمان القائم بين التجار،ويعتبر التضامن الصرفي من أهم هذه الضمانات؛ إذ يحمي حامل الورقة التجارية ويشعره بالأمان والطمأنينة، والذي يجعل كل موقع عليها ضامنا للوفاء عند امتناع المسحوب عليه وبذلك يمكن للحامل الرجوع على الملتزمين الصرفيين منفردين أو مجتمعين والمطالبة بقيمة الورقة التجارية سواء كان ذلك في ميعاد استحقاقها أم قبل ذلك الميعاد، فكل موقع عليها يكون مسؤولا على وجه التضامن مع الملتزمين الآخرين Solidarity is one of the principles of commercial law, and one of the most important guarantees adopted by the exchange law in order for the holder of the commercial paper to obtain its value when it is due, as the latter has the right to recourse to any signatory or to all signatories for the full value of the commercial paper. Commercial papers are considered a means of payment that takes the place of money in fulfillment. They perform the same function that money performs, and they are also negotiable. Given the importance of these papers in commercial transactions, and in order for them to actually take the place of money in fulfillment, the Algerian legislator has surrounded them with a set of guarantees to protect trust and credit. existing between merchants, and exchange solidarity is considered one of the most important of these guarantees. It protects the holder of the commercial paper and makes him feel safe and reassured, which makes every signatory of it a guarantor of payment in the event of the drawee’s refusal. Thus, the holder can return to the exchange obligors individually or jointly and claim the value of the commercial paper, whether that is on its maturity date or before that date. Each signatory of it is responsible. In solidarity with other committed people.

Taxpayer confidentiality and its implications (if any), on illegal miners

La Cour pénale internationale a été créée dans un but à la fois de répression et de réparation. Ces deux objectifs continuent de se concrétiser et sont clairement devenus indissociables de toute définition qu’on pourrait donner à la CPI. Cependant, si une égalité apparente pourrait exister entre ces deux objectifs, l’effectivité de la réparation s’est montrée, à bien des égards, dépendante de l’effectivité de la répression. La décision du 1er juillet 2016 rendue dans l’affaire Ruto et Sang a confirmé et renforcer cette dépendance. Malheureusement, les victimes sont celles qui paient le plus de frais de cette réalité. Il devient donc urgent pour la CPI de régler cette situation, ne serait-ce que pour offrir plus d’espoir aux victimes. Le salut pourrait venir d’une remise en cause des principes régissant les procédures devant la Cour. Sans rien inventer, la CPI pourrait grandement s’inspirer de certaines pratiques étatiques. D’abord, il pourrait être envisagé de dissocier et de rendre autonomes les procédures qui visent la condamnation pénale et celles qui visent la réparation, de sorte à rendre l’absence de condamnation pénale inopportune pour la détermination de la responsabilité civile de l’accusé. De plus, il pourrait être envisagé des alternatives lorsqu’il n’y a pas de civilement responsable, de sorte à offrir une reconnaissance juridique aux victimes et à leur donner une ordonnance de réparation. En ce sens, la CPI gagnerait peut-être à aller au-delà de la responsabilité individuelle. Enfin, les États devraient être mis un peu plus à contribution en renforçant leurs obligations respectives à l’égard des victimes. The International Criminal Court was created for the purpose of both repression and reparation. These two objectives continue to materialize and have clearly become inseparable from any definition of the ICC. However, if an apparent equality could exist between them, the effectiveness of reparation has been shown, in many aspects, to be dependent on the effectiveness of repression. The July 1st, 2016 decision in the Ruto and Sang case confirmed and reinforced this dependence. Unfortunately, the victims are the ones who bear the brunt of this reality. It is therefore becoming urgent for the ICC to resolve this situation to offer more hope to victims. This could come from questioning the principles governing procedures before the Court. Without inventing anything, the ICC could greatly draw inspiration from certain State practices. First, consideration could be given to dissociating and making independent the procedures aimed at criminal conviction and those aimed at reparation, so as to make the absence of criminal conviction inappropriate for the determination of the civil liability of the accused. In addition, it could be considered other alternatives when there is no civil liability, such as offering legal recognition to victims by giving them a reparation order. In this sense, the ICC might benefit from going beyond individual responsibility. Finally, States should be made a little more involved by strengthening their respective obligations towards victims.

Bien que l'intelligence artificielle ait émergé dans les années 1950, elle n'a été considérée comme un objet juridique que récemment. Le récent vote du règlement IA par les institutions de l'Union européenne représente un jalon crucial vers l'établissement d'un cadre juridique spécifique à l'IA. Cette étude vise à explorer le parcours ayant conduit à l'adoption de ce règlement européen sur l'IA. Nous avançons que l'histoire de l'IA révèle d'importantes contradictions juridiques. Sa nature évolutive et la diversité des discours entourant sa science fondamentale, l'informatique, sont aussi cruciales que les développements techniques ayant mené à sa création. Cette complexité a persisté dans les efforts pour définir juridiquement l'IA. L'Union européenne a rencontré des difficultés pour préciser ce qu'est l'IA et pour formuler un régime réglementaire adéquat, mettant en lumière le défi de marier les approches fondées sur les risques et les droits dans sa régulation. Nous proposons de redéfinir l'IA en tant qu'objet sociotechnique et suggérons une série de mesures pour équilibrer le règlement IA entre les approches basées sur les droits et les risques.

This dissertation is about dualities or dichotomies. In particular it investigates the interrelationships between two couple of dichotomies, the dichotomy between international and transnational crimes and the duality of land and sea as geographical and jurisdictional spaces in the attempt to answer the question of who does or should exercise its jus puniendi in case of maritime crimes of international concern. This dissertation is about dualities or dichotomies. In particular it investigates the interrelationships between two couple of dichotomies, the dichotomy between international and transnational crimes and the duality of land and sea as geographical and jurisdictional spaces in the attempt to answer the question of who does or should exercise its jus puniendi in case of maritime crimes of international concern.

The present study aimed to identify the duties – expressed and implicit – that arise for transnational companies when their economic activities are conducted on indigenous lands or have an impact on them. To this end, identified the most recurrent violations of indigenous peoples' interests regarding the commercial exploitation of their lands or surroundings. Adopting the context of the Krenak people, it was identified that the Krenak, similar to other indigenous peoples, have experienced conflicts on multiple fronts due to large scale projects affecting their territoriality, access to natural resources (with prejudice to their subsistence), and their very way of life and existence. Reflecting on the commitment made to by political entities and their respective branches with the enactment of the Federal Constitution of 1988, the constitutional provisions were interpreted from a historical perspective. It was identified that economic exploitation of indigenous lands -contingent upon legislation - shall, if enacted (because it is not a constitutional duty but a mere possibility), adhere to the criteria previously outlined in the Constitution, including consultation with the peoples concerned, authorization by the National Congress, and the right to participate in the results of the extraction. Furthermore, the principles derived from these criteria include the exceptional nature of exploration, preservation of indigenous wealth - both material and immaterial - and recognition of indigenous thought as a decisive element. It was concluded that these principles entail an extensive list of duties for transnational companies concerning indigenous peoples, which must be implemented with consideration for indigenous worldviews - an underlying assumption for the application of indigenous rights. This list is not static; rather, it should evolve with human rights developments and ensure the ability to address new challenges arising from the relationship between transnational companies and indigenous peoples.

L'opportunité des poursuites est un principe qui permet au procureur de la république, après vérification de la constitution d'une infraction, de poursuivre ou non le délinquant en fonction des données de fait qu'il apprécie souverainement dans chaque affaire. En droit français tout comme en droit béninois, ce principe n'est nulle part formulé expressément. Mais l'article 40 alinéa 1 du code de procédure pénale français et l'article 38 du code procédure pénale béninois disposent que « Le procureur de la république reçoit les plaintes et les dénonciations et apprécie la suite à leur donner ». Cette formule peut être interprétée comme accordant à ce magistrat le pouvoir d'apprécier les poursuites. Ainsi, le législateur reconnait au procureur de la république un pouvoir d'appréciation. L'opportunité des poursuites est donc un privilège, une prérogative, une faculté, un pouvoir d'appréciation souveraine qui ne peut engager sa responsabilité. Elle joue au stade de l'engagement des poursuites. De cette appréciation, peut naître soit deux décisions, soit trois, selon qu'on soit en droit béninois ou selon qu'on soit en droit français. En droit béninois, le procureur peut à l'issue de la mise en œuvre de son pouvoir d'appréciation, décider de poursuivre ou de classer sans suite. Le législateur français quant à lui, outre ces deux possibilités, permet au procureur de la république de mettre en œuvre des mesures alternatives de poursuite. Il peut s'agir soit d'une médiation pénale ou d'une composition pénale. La décision de poursuite peut être mise en œuvre par une procédure de flagrant délit, par une saisine du juge d'instruction, par une citation directe, ou par une procédure de crime flagrant. La décision de classement sans suite est une décision administrative, elle n'est pas motivée, et est non susceptible de voies de recours. Cependant elle peut faire l'objet d'un recours hiérarchique devant le procureur général. Plusieurs arguments sont avancés pour justifier ce principe. Il s'agit - L'individualisation du criminel - Du maintien de l'ordre public - La Gestion efficiente et souple du tribunal - Du désengorgement des maisons d'arrêts. Malgré ces avantages, force est de constater que de nombreuses critiques peuvent être faites à ce système. - D'abord l'application de ce principe ouvre la voie à l'arbitraire : En effet, le procureur de la république de par sa décision de classement sans suite se comporte exactement comme un juge. Plus qu'une décision administrative, le classement sans suite peut être une véritable décision au fond d'abandon de charges car l'infraction étant bien constituée. Donc assimilable à une véritable décision juridictionnelle parce que traitant des questions de libertés. - Ensuite, elle ouvre la voie à l'injustice : Le principe de l'opportunité des poursuites conduit à une application à géométrie variable de la loi. Le procureur peut décider à la tête du client, ce qui rompt l'égalité devant la loi. Ces deux reproches majeurs ont été également dénoncés par le rapport Refonder la justice : Ce qui a conduit le groupe de travail à proposer une réforme du statut du ministère public. Outre ces critiques majeurs, l'on constate également que les justificatifs évoqués par les partisans de l'opportunité des poursuites sont vraiment impertinents. - D'abord l'impertinence du désengorgement des maisons d'arrêts : On considère que le désengorgement des maisons d'arrêts est une illusion parce la poursuite pénale n'appelle pas systématiquement le décernement d'un mandat de dépôt (c'est à dire que la poursuite ne se résout pas systématiquement à la détention provisoire). En outre, le principe qui gouverne la poursuite en matière pénale est la liberté et l'exception la détention. Ensuite l'impertinence du maintien d'ordre public : On considère également que l'argument du maintien d'ordre est impertinent parce que le pouvoir exécutif à l'armée et la police pour maintenir l'ordre. The opportunity for prosecution is a principle that allows the public prosecutor, after verification of the constitution of an offense, to pursue or not the offender according to the factual data that he sovereignly appreciates in each case. In French law as in Beninese law, this principle is nowhere expressly formulated. However, Article 40 paragraph 1 of the French Code of Criminal Procedure and Article 38 of the Penal Procedure Code of Benin stipulate that "the public prosecutor receives complaints and denunciations and assesses the follow-up to be given to them". This formula can be interpreted as granting this magistrate the power to assess the prosecution. Thus, the legislator recognizes to the public prosecutor of the republic a discretionary power. The opportunity for prosecution is thus a privilege, a prerogative, a faculty, a sovereign power of appraisal which can not engage its responsibility. It is at the stage of prosecution. From this assessment, there may be two decisions, three, according to whether one is in Beninese law or according to whether one is in French law. Under Beninese law, the prosecutor may, after the exercise of his discretion, decide to proceed or to classify without further action. The French legislator, in addition to these two possibilities, allows the prosecutor of the republic to implement alternative measures of prosecution. It can be either a criminal mediation or a criminal composition. The decision to prosecute can be implemented by a flagrante delicto procedure, a referral to the investigating judge, a direct summons, or a flagrant crime procedure. The decision to take no action is an administrative decision, it is not motivated, and is not subject to appeal. However, it may be the subject of a hierarchical appeal before the Attorney General. Several arguments are put forward to justify this principle. It's about: - Individualization of the criminal - The maintenance of public order - Efficient and flexible court management - The disengagement of the arresting houses. Despite these advantages, it is clear that many criticisms can be made of this system. - First, the application of this principle opens the way to arbitrariness: Indeed, the prosecutor of the republic of his decision of classification without follow-up behaves exactly like a judge. More than an administrative decision, the classification without follow-up can be a genuine decision on the merits of abandonment of charges because the offense being well constituted. Therefore, it is tantamount to a genuine jurisdictional decision because it deals with questions of freedoms. - Then it opens the way to injustice: The principle of the suitability of prosecution leads to a variable geometry application of the law. The prosecutor can decide at the head of the client, which breaks the equality before the law. These two major criticisms were also denounced by the report Refond la justice: This led the working group to propose a reform of the statute of the prosecution. In addition to these major criticisms, we also find that the justifications evoked by the proponents of the suitability of prosecution are really impertinent. First, the impertinence of the disengagement of the houses of arrest: It is considered that the relapse of arrest houses is an illusion because criminal prosecution does not systematically call for the warrant to be waived (ie the prosecution does not systematically resolve pre-trial detention). Moreover, the principle governing prosecution in criminal matters is freedom and the exception of detention. Then the impertinence of the maintenance of public order: It is also considered that the argument of maintaining order is impertinent because the executive power to the army and the police to maintain order. - Then the impertinence of the role of the courts: For the developing countries, it is estimated that this allows to respect the ratio judge / inhabitant.

Section 23(5) of the Insolvency Act poses an interesting challenge, namely vesting a portion of an insolvent’s post-sequestration income in the trustee of the insolvent estate without infringing on the insolvent’s constitutional rights. The income earned by the insolvent during sequestration is in general excluded from his estate and does not vest in the trustee, unless the Master determines that a portion of the insolvent’s income will not be required to maintain the insolvent and his dependents. In such a case, only the portion deemed to be surplus to requirements will be included in the insolvent estate and will vest in the trustee. The question of what role the insolvent’s income should play during the sequestration process, and therefore how section 23(5) should be interpreted and applied, has vexed the courts and numerous practical and constitutional issues arise. This study examines the application and shortcomings of section 23(5) during the administration phase of the sequestration process. It then explores the lessons learned during the recent constitutional scrutiny and subsequent amendment of the emoluments attachment process. Lastly, recommendations are made for possible law reform of section 23(5).

With the adoption of the Act to amend the Environment Quality Act in order to reinforce compliance in 2011, the legislator came to establish a system of administrative monetary penalties for the protection of the environment. This new regime aims for a faster sanction that can be issued directly by the administrative power. This new sanction not only strengthens the applicability of the Environment Quality Act, but it also adds an additional burden to Quebec businesses. The objective of this thesis is to understand to what extent the system of administrative monetary penalties impacts the liability of administrators. To do this, we will first present the Environment Quality Act, which mainly governs the protection of the environment in Quebec, and above all describe the nature and objective of this system of administrative monetary penalties. Next, we will deal with certain aspects of this regime which have implications for administrator's liability. Finally, we will attempt to briefly introduce some of the observations we have made regarding the challenges and limitations of this administrative regime. Avec l’adoption de la Loi modifiant la Loi sur la qualité de l’environnement afin d’en renforcer le respect en 2011, le législateur est venu instaurer un régime de sanctions administratives pécuniaires en matière de protection de l’environnement. Ce nouveau régime vise une sanction plus rapide qui peut être émise directement par le pouvoir administratif. Cette nouvelle sanction renforce non seulement l’applicabilité de la Loi sur la qualité de l’environnement, mais elle ajoute en même temps un fardeau supplémentaire aux entreprises québécoises. L’objectif de ce mémoire est de comprendre dans quelle mesure le régime de sanctions administratives pécuniaires impacte la responsabilité des administrateurs. Pour ce faire, nous allons d’abord présenter la Loi sur la qualité de l’environnement qui encadre principalement la protection de l’environnement au Québec et surtout décrire la nature et l’objectif de ce régime de sanctions administratives pécuniaires. Ensuite, nous traiterons de certains aspects de ce régime qui entraînent des conséquences au niveau de la responsabilité des administrateurs. Finalement, nous tenterons d’introduire brièvement certaines remarques que nous avons tirées concernant les défis et limites de ce régime administratif.

A repartição do lucro entre os sócios é um dos eventos mais relevantes de uma sociedade empresária, tanto é assim que as sociedades por ações possuem uma regra de distribuição obrigatória de dividendos. Entretanto, existem limites juridicamente definidos para que esta distribuição não seja realizada em prejuízo de outros interesses tutelados pela lei. Dividida em duas partes e se valendo da metodologia analítica dedutiva, esta dissertação investiga as hipóteses de não distribuição do dividendo obrigatório aplicáveis para as companhias, identificando as situações que ensejam este não pagamento, bem como analisando criticamente os seus fundamentos e os limites quanto à sua utilização pelas companhias. A primeira parte se divide em dois capítulos, que tratam de conceitos gerais aplicáveis às sociedades, tais como a finalidade lucrativa, o lucro e o direito do acionista ao dividendo, tal qual a sistemática dos dividendos à luz das finanças corporativas. Os quatro capítulos que integram a segunda parte desta dissertação realizam uma avaliação crítica das hipóteses que autorizam o não pagamento do dividendo obrigatório. Durante a análise são realizadas propostas de interpretação do texto legal para solucionar eventuais lacunas existentes na lei com relação a cada uma das hipóteses analisadas, naquilo que possível dentro das limitações da pesquisa. Entre outros resultados, a pesquisa traz contribuições para diferenciar a incompatibilidade da situação financeira da companhia e a crise financeira, confrontando interpretação anterior, que relacionava a incompatibilidade com a iliquidez. A pesquisa também contribui para uma interpretação científica das novas disposições relacionadas à não distribuição do dividendo obrigatório, trazidas pela Lei n. 14.112/20 e pela Lei Complementar n. 182/21, que restringem o pagamento de dividendos. The allocation of profit among shareholders stands as one of the most significant events within a business entity. This is evident in the existence of a mandatory dividend distribution rule in joint-stock companies. Nonetheless, legally defined boundaries exist to prevent such distribution from occurring to the detriment of other interests protected by the law. Split into two parts and employing deductive analytical methodology, this dissertation investigates the scenarios where the mandatory dividend is not distributed in companies, identifying situations that warrant this non-payment and critically analyzing its foundations and limitations concerning its utilization by these companies. The first part comprises two chapters addressing general concepts applicable to corporations, such as profit purpose, earnings, shareholder right to dividends, and the dividend system in light of corporate finance. The second part, composed of four chapters, conducts a critical assessment of the scenarios permitting the non-payment of mandatory dividends. Throughout the analysis, proposals for interpreting the legal text are made to address potential gaps in the law regarding each of the examined scenarios, as far as possible within the research limitations. Among other findings, the research provides insights to distinguish between a companys financial incompatibility and financial crisis, challenging previous interpretations that linked incompatibility solely to illiquidity. Additionally, the study contributes to a scientific interpretation of the new provisions related to the non-distribution of mandatory dividends introduced by Law 14,112/20 and Complementary Law 182/21, which restrict dividend payments.

Près de dix ans après la crise des subprimes les opérations de titrisation connaissent un nouvel essor. Ce dernier fait suite notamment à des travaux de la Commission européenne qui, dès 2015, a fait part de son intention de réviser le corpus applicable à ces transactions dans la cadre de son plan d'action pour la construction de l'Union des Marchés de Capitaux. C'est ainsi qu'en 2017 un règlement portant sur les opérations simples transparentes et standardisées a été publié au journal officiel de l'Union européenne. Ce texte a vocation à être complété par un autre règlement relatif à l'opposabilité des cessions de créances. Au niveau international les règles de rétention de fonds propres applicables visant les expositions de titrisations ont été amendées afin de mieux prendre en compte les risques y attachés. En France le régime applicable à la gestion d'actif et au financement par la dette a été remanié. On peut se demander comment ces évolutions normatives ont influencé la manière dont les risques systémiques et idiosyncratiques sont créés, transférés et couverts dans le cadre des opérations de titrisation. Almost ten years after the subprime crisis, securitization transactions are experiencing a new boom. The latter follows notably work of the European Commission which, as early as 2015, announced its intention to revise the legal framework applicable to these transactions as part of its action plan for the Capital Market Union. This led in 2017 to the publication in the Official Journal of the European Union of a regulation on simple, transparent and standardized transactions. This text is intended to be supplemented by another regulation on the enforceability of assignments of receivables. At the international level, the capital retention rules applicable to securitization exposures have been amended to take better account of the risks associated to said exposures. In France, the legal framework applicable to asset management and debt financing has been revised. One can wonder whether the normative developments have influenced the way systemic and idiosyncratic risks are created, transferred and hedged in securitization transactions.

This dissertation explores the evolution of explicit deposit insurance schemes (EDIS) in Southern African countries. It emphasises the important role of banks in the economy and their vulnerability to failures despite prudential requirements and supervision. Financial safety nets are essential for failing banks, and deposit insurance is the primary mechanism to protect depositors and maintain financial system stability in the event of a bank's failure. Originating in 1933 with the establishment of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation in the United States of America during the Great Depression, EDIS has become a global standard. Southern Africa, with its developing financial sector, faces many challenges including bank failures, causing depositors to lose funds. The region's high interconnectedness increases the threat of contagion if parent banks fail. The absence of deposit insurance raises the likelihood of fiscal authorities succumbing to political pressure to bailout failing banks during crises as seen during the 2007-09 Global Financial Crisis (GFC). The GFC prompted the International Association of Deposit Insurers and the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision to establish the Core Principles for Effective Deposit Insurance Systems. Issued in June 2009, these principles are used by jurisdictions as a benchmark for assessing the quality of their deposit insurance systems and identifying gaps in their deposit insurance practices. This research aims to evaluate international best practice standards for EDIS and extract lessons from the establishment of EDIS in the USA to address gaps in the implementation of deposit insurance schemes in Southern African countries. Examining ten Southern African countries, this research investigates varied progress in EDIS adoption. Case studies, particularly Zimbabwe as a pioneer of EDIS in the region and Namibia as a recent entrant, help to identify gaps and opportunities for enhancing deposit insurance frameworks in the region.

A Tese aborda a reparação dos danos morais por ricochete no Direito Civil brasileiro a partir de perspectiva histórica, empírica e comparada. Objetiva-se contribuir para a definição de critérios da reparação sob dois aspectos: a legitimidade para postulação do ressarcimento e a quantificação do dano. Para tanto, investiga-se a construção da responsabilidade civil por danos morais por ricochete nos ordenamentos jurídicos francês, português e alemão e na jurisprudência de cada país e, depois, examina-se o histórico desta reparação no Direito Civil brasileiro. Em seguida, analisa-se o enfrentamento dos temas centrais pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal e pelo Superior Tribunal de Justiça, em virtude de na jurisprudência verificar-se a tentativa de definição de alguns parâmetros a regerem a reparação dos danos extrapatrimoniais por ricochete. Avalia-se os conceitos e fundamentos legal, doutrinário e jurisprudencial deste tipo de dano e os riscos e vantagens de estabelecer-se, no Brasil, critérios restritivos de indenização, à semelhança do que ocorre nos ordenamentos português e alemão. Por fim, conclui-se que não há critério efetivamente firmado no STJ a respeito da definição da legitimidade para postulação do ressarcimento, pelo que se sugere a adoção de modelo restritivo a partir da utilização da ordem de vocação hereditária estabelecida no artigo 1.829 do Código Civil, à semelhança dos modelos português e alemão, a fim de garantir segurança jurídica e estabilidade conceitual ao tema. A respeito da quantificação do dano, propõe-se não a utilização de tarifação, mas de regulação da quantificação, observando-se os elementos seguintes: (a) possibilidades econômico-financeiras de ofensor e vítima reflexa; (b) grau de culpa do ofensor; (c) extensão do dano reflexo; (d) quantidade de vítimas reflexamente atingidas pelo mesmo evento danoso; e (e) proximidade do vínculo de parentesco entre vítima direta e vítima reflexa.

La mondialisation de l'économie de marché ouvre de nouveaux horizons aux entreprises commerciales en étant source de croissance, d'emplois et de prospérité, même si elle engendre aussi des risques, en particulier lorsque les entreprises développent des activités dans des zones en proie à des conflits armés, internationaux ou internes, ou dans des territoires occupés. Les entreprises sont incitées par la société civile et les organisations internationales à tenir de plus en plus compte du droit relatif aux droits de l'homme, qui s'applique tant en période de conflit armé que de paix. Le droit international humanitaire, alors même qu'il est spécifiquement conçu pour régir des situations de conflit armé, qu'il a des effets importants pour elles lorsqu'elles opèrent dans des pays qui connaissent de telles situations, leur est moins connu et fait moins l'objet d'attention par la doctrine, notamment francophone.Un certain nombre de contentieux récents ont soulevé des interrogations en la matière, tant sur le plan de la protection des entreprises par le corpus du droit international humanitaire, que sur celui de la soumission des entreprises à ces règles. Cette thèse analyse l'applicabilité du droit international humanitaire aux entreprises commerciales, à leurs salariés, leurs biens, leurs activités qui peuvent être à la fois des cibles, des victimes, des participants des conflits armés, voire des auteurs de violations du droit international humanitaire, soulevant des interrogations relatives à l'adaptation et la pertinence du DIH à ces entités.

Environmental reclamation obligations are statutory mechanisms designed to regulate environmental protection by corporate entities. Bankruptcy laws on the other hand are meant to offer insolvent corporations an opportunity to reorganize their affairs, satisfy creditors claims and make a fresh start. In practice, the application of bankruptcy laws can undermine key environmental reclamation objectives, leading many to ask whether a corporation undergoing restructuring with significant outstanding environmental reclamation obligations should be able to commence bankruptcy proceedings to satisfy creditors’ claims? By employing the doctrinal and comparative research methodologies, this research interrogates that inquiry. It argues that, despite the importance of bankruptcy protection for corporations undergoing financial distress, environmental protection should be paramount. Although sustainable finance (SF) instruments have been deployed by banks to enable creditors to mitigate environmental concerns in their investments, the persistent recurrence of environmental reclamation issues in the oil and gas sector particularly during insolvencies, underscores the need for financial investors to strengthen their investment policies to reflect best practices providing the desired protection for the environment. The research finds that, although SF and environmental, social and governance (ESG) approaches, are commendable, they are insufficient in instilling adequate regulatory impact on the environment compared to judicial control offered by the courts. The thesis concludes that whilst judicial control mechanism is not without concerns, with government’s deliberate financial policy and judicial control to complement SF and ESG efforts, ESG and SF mechanisms can be strengthened to compel greater significant influence on best practices in lending.

O artigo 421-A do Código Civil justifica o afastamento da presunção de paridade e de simetria dos contratos empresariais mediante a presença de elementos concretos cujo teor, natureza e efeitos não são explicitados. A disposição é, via de regra, relacionada à possibilidade de intervir em contratos marcados pela assimetria de poder de barganha entre os contratantes. Dado que é natural que haja disparidade de poder entre as partes, eventual intervenção para conter ou sancionar os efeitos da liberdade contratual exercida no âmbito de uma relação obrigacional assimétrica apenas é justificada se comprometerem valores jurídicos, razão pela se compreende que nem todo desequilíbrio de poder é e deve ser juridicamente significativo. Portanto, propõe- se o conceito de assimetria de poder juridicamente significativa a partir da interpretação sistemática dos artigos 187, 421, caput e 421-A, caput do Código Civil. O objetivo do trabalho é investigar os critérios para qualificação das práticas contratuais derivadas da assimetria de poder juridicamente significativa, bem como seus impactos no cumprimento dos objetivos da disciplina jurídica aplicável aos contratos empresariais de promover segurança jurídica e confiança aos agentes econômicos. Para alcançar o objetivo proposto, a análise foi realizada a partir de dois recortes, um geral e um específico. Como Recorte de Análise Geral, considerou-se os contratos da cadeia agroalimentar (agronegócio) firmados entre o elo produtor e o segmento a jusante. O Recorte de Análise Específico correspondeu aos contratos firmados entre os citricultores e as indústrias processadoras de suco de laranja. Como resultados, defende-se que é juridicamente significativa a assimetria de poder nos contratos empresariais quando dela resultam práticas contratuais pelas quais o agente com poder superior de barganha transfere, total ou parcialmente, custos e riscos incidentes sobre a operação econômica formalizada pelo contrato à parte com desvantagem negocial, sem que seja justificada, do ponto de vista da estrutura jurídica e/ou econômica do negócio, a ausência de contrapartida para assunção de referidos custos e riscos, comprometendo, ao menos potencialmente, o cumprimento da função socioeconômica imediata e mediata dos contratos empresariais. Ademais, a assimetria de poder juridicamente significativa compromete o cumprimento dos objetivos da disciplina jurídica de conferir segurança jurídica e confiança aos agentes econômicos atuantes em dado mercado, razão pela qual não é efetiva para lidar a contento com a problemática. A partir dos resultados, concluiu-se que são necessárias adaptações a nível de direito material e instrumental para endereçamento dos impactos da assimetria de poder juridicamente significativa, que devem ser objeto de pesquisas futuras. Article 421-A of the Civil Code justifies challenging the presumption of parity and symmetry in business contracts through the presence of concrete elements whose content, nature, and effects are not specified. This provision is generally related to the possibility of intervening in contracts characterized by an asymmetry of bargaining power between the parties. Given that there is naturally a disparity of power between the parties, any intervention to contain or sanction the effects of contractual freedom exercised within an asymmetric obligational relationship is only justified if it compromises legal values. Therefore, it is understood that not every power imbalance is, or should be, legally significant. Hence, the concept of legally significant power asymmetry is proposed based on the systematic interpretation of Articles 187, 421, caput in light of Article 421-A, caput of the Civil Code. The objective of this study is to investigate the criteria for qualifying contractual practices resulting from legally significant power asymmetry and to assess their impacts on the fulfillment of the objectives of the legal framework applicable to business contracts in providing legal certainty and trust to economic agents. To achieve the proposed objective, the analysis was conducted through two scopes, a general one and a specific one. As part of the general analysis, contracts within the agri-food chain (agribusiness) between the producer and the downstream segment were considered. The specific analysis focused on contracts concluded between citrus growers and orange juice processing industries. As a result, it is argued that power asymmetry in business contracts is legally significant when it leads to contractual practices by which the party with superior bargaining power transfers, either entirely or partially, the costs and risks associated with the economic operation formalized by the contract to the disadvantaged party, without the absence of consideration being justified from the perspective of the legal and/or economic structure of the business, thereby compromising the fulfillment of the immediate and mediate socioeconomic function of business contracts. Furthermore, legally significant power asymmetry undermines the achievement of the legal framework\'s objectives to provide legal certainty and trust to economic agents operating in a given market, which is why it is ineffective in adequately addressing the issue. The results led to the conclusion that adjustments are required within both substantive and procedural legal frameworks to tackle the problem effectively, which should be further researched.