Bibliographie sélective OHADA

La thèse analyse en profondeur la procédure de vente d’un immeuble saisi, en comparant les législations française, OHADA (Organisation pour l’Harmonisation en Afrique du Droit des Affaires) et alsacienne-mosellane. Elle montre que la saisie immobilière, bien que complexe, reste un instrument essentiel de recouvrement des créances pour les créanciers. Dans une première partie, l’auteur aborde la vente forcée, procédure judiciaire par laquelle le créancier poursuit la vente de l’immeuble du débiteur défaillant pour se faire payer. En droit français, la procédure est fortement judiciarisée : elle impose la saisine du juge de l'exécution, la rédaction d’un cahier des conditions de vente, une audience d’orientation, puis éventuellement une vente aux enchères. En droit OHADA, la procédure est moins détaillée mais tout aussi formaliste, avec une audience dite « des criées », mais sans équivalent à l’audience d’orientation. Le notaire joue un rôle plus important en Alsace-Moselle, où le droit local déjudiciarise la procédure, confiant à ce dernier la gestion des ventes.La deuxième partie traite des issues négociées, comme la vente amiable. En France, elle est encouragée sous autorisation du juge et permet d’éviter une adjudication souvent perçue comme brutale. Le droit OHADA, au contraire, ne prévoit pas explicitement la vente amiable, mais la pratique reconnaît parfois son utilité. L’auteur montre les tensions entre formalisme juridique et souplesse pragmatique, surtout quand la vente vise à préserver le logement familial du débiteur.L’approche historique enrichit l’analyse : en France, la saisie a évolué depuis les ordonnances royales, avec des réformes majeures en 1938, 1991, 2006 et la codification en 2012. En Afrique, l’OHADA, par l’adoption de l’AUPSRVE (Acte uniforme sur les procédures simplifiées de recouvrement et des voies d'exécution), a cherché à harmoniser et sécuriser les procédures civiles, souvent héritées du droit colonial français. Toutefois, la réforme de 2023 n’a pas permis de moderniser en profondeur la saisie immobilière, soulignant le besoin d’adaptation aux réalités socio-économiques africaines.Enfin, l’auteur propose une réflexion critique sur l’efficacité et l’humanité de la procédure, en insistant sur l’importance d’un équilibre entre le droit du créancier et la protection du débiteur. Il plaide pour une plus grande ouverture aux solutions amiables, notamment dans l’espace OHADA. This doctoral thesis offers a comparative legal study on the sale of seized real estate under French law, OHADA law, and the Alsace-Moselle local law system. The seizure and forced sale of property are key mechanisms for debt recovery, though they are often complex, lengthy, and emotionally charged.The first part focuses on forced sale procedures. In French law, this involves strict judicial control, including issuing an enforcement order, drafting terms of sale, holding an orientation hearing, and eventually organizing a public auction. In OHADA law, the process is also formalistic but lacks the nuanced judicial orientation stage seen in France. Instead, there is a “criée” hearing. In Alsace-Moselle, the process is unique: it is largely non-judicial, with the notary conducting the entire sale procedure after the initial court authorization.The second part explores negotiated outcomes, particularly the amicable sale. French law encourages out-of-court sales with judicial approval to avoid public auctions, which are often distressing for debtors. OHADA law does not formally allow for amicable sales, but informal practices sometimes accommodate them. The thesis highlights the tension between legal formalism and practical flexibility, especially when the debtor's home is at stake.The historical perspective strengthens the comparative study. France underwent several legal reforms: 1938, 1991, 2006, and the 2012 codification of enforcement procedures. In contrast, OHADA countries inherited fragmented colonial laws. The 1998 AUPSRVE was a major step toward legal harmonization across member states. However, the 2023 reform fell short of expectations, leaving key issues in seizure and sale processes unresolved, notably the lack of modernization and borrower protection.The author emphasizes the need for a fair balance between creditor rights and debtor protection. He advocates for greater use of amicable solutions, particularly in OHADA jurisdictions where formal options remain limited and social contexts differ significantly from European systems. The thesis suggests that legal systems should be both effective and humane, offering realistic tools adapted to each region’s economic and cultural realities.

This work aims to analyze the aggregation of creditors into classes within the scope of judicial reorganization in accordance with Law No. 11.101/2005, as well as the procedural and principled impacts involved, such as the approval of the judicial reorganization plan, the aggregation of creditors into classes, the voting system, and the principles of par condicio creditorum and preservation of the company. It aims to identify gaps and mechanisms that may lead to the distortion of the intended purpose and presents premises and hypotheses for limiting and practically implementing the topic to avoid abusive practices. Thus, this work presents brief introductory and fundamental notions about judicial reorganization by the presentation of basic concepts related to the judicial reorganization plan and the division of creditors into classes, demonstrating the origins, objectives, and expectations of the establishment of classes as presented in Law No. 11.101/2005. Furthermore, specific study objectives include analyzing how the division of classes of creditors affects the voting on the judicial reorganization plan and how the possibility of creating subclasses - such as strategic creditors - has been addressed and its direct and indirect effects on the procedure and involved creditors. Next, this work verifies the legal provisions on the topic - such as Article 41 of Law No. 11.101/2005 as well as the consequences and impasses observed throughout the years of the law\'s existence that demands attention and changes to ensure that treatment of creditors in the context of reorganization occurs in a more just and appropriate manner for all parties involved. Thereby, alternative solutions will be presented for better management of the judicial reorganization procedure regarding creditor classes and subdivisions to ensure and preserve the objective of judicial reorganization, always considering the economic, political, and social factors that influence the analysis of the company\'s economic viability, which are constantly changing.

Alors que la finance traditionnelle peine à se renouveler, les nouveaux applicatifs de finance décentralisée proposent des services financiers basés sur des protocoles innovants, codés et entièrement gérés par les utilisateurs. Les classifications historiques de la finance sont largement inefficaces et des catégories telles que celle des instruments financiers ne permettent pas de construire un encadrement pertinent. Celles-ci doivent être dépassées pour pouvoir encadrer de façon plus inclusive tous les actifs décentralisés. La communication financière est rendue désuète et nécessite une refonte pour prendre en compte les nouvelles motivations des investisseurs et les impératifs environnementaux.

El estudio de los Dispute Boards (DB) y su función social reflejada a través de la prevención y resolución de conflictos empresariales en contratos complejos es el tema central de este estudio. El problema de investigación planteado, en este contexto, es si los Dispute Boards son institutos capaces de desempeñar una función social basada en la prevención y resolución de conflictos en contratos mercantiles complejos. Así, el tema se desarrolla con base en el método dialéctico de la producción científica, apoyado en investigaciones bibliográficas y documentales, además de investigaciones de campo, con encuestas cuantitativas y cualitativas sobre el uso de los DBs. Para ello, el estudio busca contextualizar los conceptos que involucran al mercado, la empresa y la función social como factores que permean contratos comerciales complejos, caracterizados por incertidumbres y riesgos relacionados con la ejecución contractual que deben ser gestionados a través de la implementación de una gobernanza guiada. por principios que implementen la eficiencia de la relación comercial. La referencia a estándares internos en el ámbito de la administración pública también se utiliza para guiar el estudio, que también se abarca en la aplicación del gobierno corporativo, identificando los DBs como vectores para implementar contratos complejos y, en consecuencia, promover y entregar valor sostenible a las empresas. y otras partes interesadas, concluyendo que son mecanismos relevantes para promover la función social, prevenir y resolver conflictos, especialmente en contratos complejos. De la misma manera, se identifica la necesidad de potenciar el instituto DB, atribuyendo personalidad jurídica, además de la contractual, a sus decisiones, con el fin de potenciar su propia función social basada en la seguridad jurídica de los dictámenes deliberantes vinculantes emitidos, presentando, al final, una propuesta de proyecto de ley con el objetivo de iniciar el proceso legislativo para implementar esta realidad jurídica, siguiendo el ejemplo del instituto de arbitraje.

In South Africa, before the Financial Advisory and Intermediaries Services Act (FAIS Act) and other insurance laws came into existence, intermediary services regarding the rendering of insurance products have always been regulated by the law of agency and mandate. This means that the Roman-Dutch principles provided for the standards to which the conduct of intermediaries was to comply with when rendering insurance services. The mandate of intermediaries in terms of the Roman-Dutch Principles also included the fact that they had to act with care, skill and in good faith. When the FAIS Act came into operation, it introduced several detailed rules and minimum standards for insurance intermediaries to comply with, and these minimum standards are not limited to qualifications, experiences and characteristics of honesty and integrity that an intermediary must comply with, but they also stipulated in detail what an intermediary must do when discharging insurance intermediary duties. The FAIS Act is the leading legislation when it comes to the regulation of intermediary services. The FAIS Act, under section 16, provides for a General Code of Conduct for Authorised Financial Services Providers and their Representative (GCC), which contains a set of rules that are applicable to all intermediaries. These rules under the GCC are aimed at ensuring that insurance customers are provided with material facts that will enable them to make a prior informed decision and that their reasonable financial needs concerning insurance products will be carefully considered so that they can be provided with a product that will be suitable to satisfy their needs. Furthermore, in terms of South African laws and practices, intermediaries play an essential role in the creation of legally binding insurance contracts. Insurance businesses are concluded through intermediaries. Considering that many insurance companies are juristic persons, and they can only conduct business by means of human agents, insurance laws make it compulsory for intermediaries to have skills, knowledge, and experience regarding insurance products that they are rendering to insurance customers. It is commonly believed that intermediaries with skills, knowledge and experience, they always act in the best interest of the client, and they ask relevant questions to assist the clients to disclose all material facts, and they always make sure that material facts are clearly communicated/disclosed to the insurer and insured to avoid future conflicts. The legal framework placed a duty on the intermediary to assist the insured to disclose all material facts and to explain all clauses contained in the insurance contract which may lead to the insurer repudiate its liability. Furthermore, an intermediary is at all material times expected to first consider the financial situation of the potential insured before determines a cover that will be best suitable for the insured’s needs. However, despite the best guidelines outlined by applicable insurance laws and regulations, mistakes are still being made by intermediaries, which lead to insurance customers to suffer the consequences of impractical intermediary services, and that has resulted in numerous complaints, legal disputes, debarments, and other regulatory actions. As a result of intermediaries’ continuous misconduct, insurers have been repudiating claims, and it has created a presumption that insurers conduct businesses to enrich themselves instead of protecting the interests of their customers as required by regulating legal framework. Therefore, so many people have lost confidence in the insurance industry due to unlimited court cases and complaints arising from misconduct or omissions of intermediaries, such as their failure to disclose material facts to the parties. Once it is found that material facts were not fully disclosed between the insurer and insured, both parties would have been deprived of their right to make an informed decision before consenting or signing a legally binding contract. Therefore, a need is created for intermediaries to be educated of their legal duties when rendering insurance services and that will help strengthen or restore the confidence of the public towards insurance industry.

The main aim of this thesis is to solve the uncertainties brought about by dismissals for off-duty misconduct. First, it should be acknowledged that the world as we know it has changed and continues to evolve. Dismissals have been significantly impacted by the use of social media outside the workplace. The legalisation of the use of cannabis by an adult person has also brought uncertainties in the way dismissals are handled, especially in cases where an employee consumes cannabis off-duty. These two aspects have significantly influenced dismissals for off-duty misconduct in South Africa, with employees alleging that their rights to privacy, dignity and freedom of expression are infringed. The thesis reveals that regardless of these modern changes, off-duty misconduct dismissal is still governed by the generic provisions of the Labour Relations Act 1995 and its Code of Good Practice: Dismissal. The thesis underscores the lack of clarity regarding the regulation of dismissals for off-duty misconduct in South Africa. Furthermore, despite the judiciary’s establishment of tests (the nexus test and the breakdown of the employment relationship), challenges in adjudicating off-duty misconduct cases persist. This thesis analyses the South African legal framework governing dismissals for off-duty misconduct. The research investigates the evolution of South African dismissal law, tracing its development from the pre-democratic era to the post-democratic era. This investigation scrutinises the shifts in the legal landscape regarding dismissals for off-duty misconduct. The analysis encompasses a range of legal instruments pertinent to South Africa, including legislation, international law, common law, and judicial precedent. The current need for a Code of Good Practice for off-duty misconduct dismissal is highlighted. This rationale is prompted by a comparative examination of other countries where, despite the absence of specific codes addressing off-duty misconduct, a proactive stance has been adopted to safeguard employees’ off-duty rights by enacting relevant legislation. These chosen states have statutes regulating employees’ off-duty conduct and clarifying which conduct is protected and in which circumstances. Consequently, the thesis proposes a Code of Good Practice: Dismissal for Off-duty Misconduct. This Code would assist in the uniformity of application of relevant aspects in determining the fairness of dismissals for off-duty misconduct, thus alleviating labour suits concerning this type of dismissal. The Code would also provide employers with guidelines on how to draft off-duty misconduct policies without infringing employees’ constitutional rights.

La concentration des marchés numériques autour d’une poignée d’opérateurs de plateforme numérique structurante, notion développée dans l’étude, tend à soulever des problèmes économiques et sociétaux. En matière de concurrence, en premier lieu, de nombreux économistes ont mis en exergue les défaillances des marchés sur lesquels interviennent ces acteurs (i.e. effets de verrouillage tels que les effets de réseau et la capture des données, économies d’échelle et d’envergure) ainsi que les effets néfastes pour la liberté de choix des utilisateurs et l’innovation. Les problèmes de concurrence interplateforme et intraplateforme s’accompagnent de problèmes plus sociétaux liés à la concentration des flux d’information autour des écosystèmes construits par ces opérateurs et au sein desquels les utilisateurs sont maintenus captifs. Les opérateurs de plateforme numérique structurante ont acquis une position incontournable sur l ’internet leur conférant un rôle de quasi-régulateur des activités en ligne. Cette situation tend à affaiblir la liberté d’expression et d’information des utilisateurs, leur liberté d’association et liberté de réunion ainsi que leur droit au respect de la vie privée. Fort de ce constat, qui a appelé de nombreuses réponses législatives de la part des pouvoirs publics, en Europe particulièrement, l’étude analyse plus spécifiquement l’interopérabilité comme un outil permettant, lorsque c’est nécessaire et proportionné, d’ouvrir les écosystèmes des opérateurs de plateforme numérique structurante afin de promouvoir la liberté de choix des utilisateurs, la concurrence et l’innovation. Raisonnant par analogie avec le droit des communications électroniques ainsi que d’autres régimes ayant mis en place ce type de remède d’accès (e.g. droit de la concurrence, règlement sur les marchés numériques, droit bancaire, droit des transports), les bénéfices de l’interopérabilité pour renforcer l’autonomie des utilisateurs sont mis en exergue. L’étude s’intéresse aussi aux implications de l’adoption d’un tel remède en droit positif et son effet notamment sur les droits des débiteurs (e.g. propriété intellectuelle) et des tiers concernés (e.g. vie privée). Elle s’intéresse également aux difficultés de mise en œuvre de l’interopérabilité qui comporte une forte dimension technique et qui serait amenée à être imposée sur des marchés présentant d’importantes asymétries d’information. S’inspirant des solutions dégagées au sein de différents instruments juridiques, l’étude propose des pistes pour assurer une application efficace du remède.

A narrativa da globalização é ambígua, visto que, em âmbito internacional, o discurso é de liberalização dos mercados para que as empresas mais eficientes e inovadoras prosperem; contudo, no plano doméstico, os Estados Nacionais procuram controlar minuciosamente a entrada de capital estrangeiro em seu território. Em especial, esse controle recai sobre a aquisição de empresas nacionais, já que essas operações econômicas podem transferir o controle de: (i) mercados nacionais (ii) tecnologia crítica e know-how; (iii) infraestrutura estratégica; e (iv) informações e dados sensíveis. Trata-se de elementos que, individualmente ou em conjunto, influenciam a soberania de um país. Por força do discurso liberalizante da globalização, é comumente propagado que a análise antitruste no controle de estruturas deve ser neutra e focada no trade-off entre eficiência e os efeitos deletérios unilaterais, coordenados e de fechamento de mercado que eventualmente possam existir em um ato de concentração. Dessa forma, a presente tese de doutorado investiga fenômenos jurídicos que fogem do consenso do direito concorrencial ortodoxo, a saber: (i) a incidência de inúmeros interesses para bloquear investimento estrangeiros indesejáveis em empresas e ativos nacionais; (iii) os efeitos dos subsídios estatais em empresas privadas (campeões nacionais) e públicas (empresas estatais) para disputa de mercados alienígenas, e, consequentemente, melhor posicionar os seus respectivos Estados Nacionais na ordem econômica internacional. Sustenta-se que, hoje, o direito concorrencial pátrio se encontra paralisado pelo discurso liberalizante da globalização; contudo, existem elementos suficientes para uma nova teoria antitruste do dano para tutela da soberania econômica nacional, tendo em vista que o art. 219 da Constituição Federal de 1988 protege o mercado interno como patrimônio nacional, capaz de viabilizar o desenvolvimento cultural e socioeconômico por meio da endogeinização dos centros de decisão nas empresas nacionais. Por fim, defende-se que nova teoria do dano demanda adaptações e flexibilizações às ferramentas tradicionais do direito concorrencial, especialmente em relação à análise: (i) da nacionalidade das pessoas jurídicas envolvidas no ato de concentração; e (ii) das estratégias de financiamento para aquisição da empresa alvo (o abuso de poder econômico- financeiro em atos de concentração); e (iii) do conceito de grupo econômico de empresas estatais.

Le législateur OHADA s'est inspiré du droit français pour fixer le cadre juridique de la variabilité du capital social ; d'où l'étude orientée vers une approche comparatiste. Cette approche a permis une confrontation entre deux (02) systèmes juridiques, en vue de dégager les problèmes de droit et d'envisager une amélioration du cadre juridique de la variabilité du capital en droit OHADA ; l'objectif étant de dégager une contribution à l'amélioration du droit OHADA à travers le droit comparé. A l'analyse, il ressort que la variabilité du capital social comporte des facteurs attractifs pour les acteurs économiques. En effet, elle constitue un mécanisme de financement des sociétés, en raison d'une part, de sa capacité à renforcer les capitaux propres sans charge financière et, d'une part, de sa capacité à constituer un actionnariat spécifiquement orienté sur la rentabilité des sociétés. De même, elle pourrait susciter un intérêt pour les investisseurs intéressés par la célérité et l'efficacité dans les opérations de financement des entreprises. L'efficacité du financement de la société par la mise en œuvre de la clause de variabilité du capital est tributaire, entre autres, de son attractivité auprès des acteurs économiques de manière générale, des investissements et des professionnels du droit en particulier. Cependant, plusieurs facteurs ne militeraient pas en faveur du recours à la variabilité du capital. Parmi ces facteurs figurent les risques découlant de la réduction du capital et la méconnaissance des acteurs économiques et des praticiens du droit de l'existence et/ou du fonctionnement du mécanisme de la variabilité du capital. Or, ces risques ne sont pas irrémédiables, dans la mesure où il existe des mécanismes juridiques appropriés pour y faire face. En somme, l'analyse du fonctionnement du mécanisme de la variabilité du capital social a mis en évidence ses capacités de mobilisation de financement, de recapitalisation de la société, de restructuration de la société et d'apporter une contribution à l'amélioration du cadre juridique des sociétés à capital variable. Elle a également permis de démontrer l'insuffisance de la justification ou du fondement du désintérêt des acteurs économiques et des praticiens du droit à l'égard de la variabilité du capital social

L'accès aux soins de santé, notamment des plus pauvres, est une préoccupation au coeur des réflexions dans tous les systèmes politiques et juridiques nationaux. La question se pose davantage sur le continent africain où il existe peu de mécanismes de couverture santé. Les différents projets de Couverture maladie universelle initiés dans un certain nombre de pays africains tentent d'y apporter des solutions, mais peinent encore à se déployer. C'est le cas en Côte d'Ivoire depuis l'entrée en vigueur, le 1er octobre 2019, de la loi n°2014-131 du 24 mars 2014 instituant la Couverture maladie universelle. En dehors des travailleurs salariés et des fonctionnaires en activité ou à la retraite, les populations intègrent lentement et difficilement la CMU pourtant obligatoire pourtous. Il faut dire que le projet fait l'objet de critiques et de peu d'adhésion de la part de la population. Il pèche également par ses dispositions qui alimentent ces critiques, notamment sur la durée du délai de carence s’imposant à l’assuré, le caractère obligatoire de l'activité professionnelle pour les étrangers, le manque d'ouverture à d'autres formes de médecine telle que la médecine traditionnelle. Cela dit, l'exercice du droit fondamental à la santé dans un environnement marqué par un secteur informel important et une population à majorité pauvre passe par un système obligatoire et solidaire de mutualisation du risque comme la CMU. Reste à déterminer le modèle adéquat, notamment en termes de financement, afin de mettre en adéquation son objectifd’universalité et le contexte dans lequel il est mis en oeuvre.

À rebours des droits originellement africains, les droits modernes africains, tel qu'ils ont été hérités de la colonisation peinent à satisfaire l'aspiration des sociétés africaines à un minimum de normativisation des relations sociales. Le refus du juge d'adapter le contrat déséquilibré en cas d'un changement de circonstances imprévisible en droit civil des pays francophones d'Afrique au Sud du Sahara, résultant du mimétisme du Code civil français de 1804, en témoigne. Par son refus obstiné, le juge poursuit une politique coloniale, en dépit de l'indépendance des pays concernés. Le Code civil français de 1804 qui s'applique presque intégralement dans les pays francophones d'Afrique au Sud du Sahara, a été profondément réformé en 2016. S'est ainsi créé, un fossé considérable entre le droit contractuel africain resté fidèle au Code civil français de 1804 et un droit des obligations français en modernisation et en adéquation avec les pratiques contractuelles de la société française. À la différence du nouveau droit français des contrats, les systèmes juridiques des pays francophones d'Afrique au Sud du Sahara, ne reconnaissent pas le pouvoir au juge d'adapter le contrat surpris par le fait imprévisible. Or, en Afrique traditionnelle tout comme moderne, il ne fait aucun doute que la relation contractuelle est plus solidaire et moins individualiste. Au Québec, la réforme du Code civil en 1994 a marqué une avancée de la justice contractuelle sur la stabilité contractuelle. Cependant, tout comme le C.c.B.C dont la rédaction a été influencée par le Code civil français de 1804, le Cc.Q ne prend pas en considération la théorie de l'imprévision. Cette étude vise à démontrer d'une part que le refus de l'imprévision dans le droit civil africain résulte du mimétisme du Code civil français de 1804. Elle vise à démontrer d'autre part que la prise en considération de l'imprévision dans les sociétés africaines, par le biais de la théorie relationnelle du contrat, est en harmonie avec les pratiques contractuelles des sociétés africaines.

L'industrie maritime a connu de profondes mutations qui ont non seulement influé sur les rapports commerciaux liés au transport maritime, mais aussi sur les relations de travail qui se créent à l'occasion de l'emploi des gens de mer à bord des navires. Une manifestation concrète de ces mutations a été le recours par les armateurs à des structures spécialisées dans la fourniture d'équipage. Dénommés agences de *manning* ou fournisseurs de main-d'œuvre, ces structures facilitent les procédures de recrutement pour les armateurs et constituent par la même occasion de véritables pourvoyeurs d'emploi pour les gens de mer. Toutefois, certains comportements des agences de *manning* peuvent mettre en péril la protection des gens de mer et de leurs droits. De ce fait, l'activité de fourniture de main-d'œuvre maritime a nécessité un encadrement. Bien qu'un ensemble de règles internationales et nationales participe à cet encadrement, des questions demeurent. Celles-ci sont relatives non seulement aux situations conflictuelles de lois et de juridictions que pose l'activité en raison de son caractère international, mais aussi aux difficultés relatives à la détermination de l'employeur véritable du travailleur dans le cadre de la relation de travail tripartite qui naît. La libre immatriculation des navires et le phénomène de complaisance ont conduit à une remise en cause du rôle premier que devraient jouer les États du pavillon dans la protection des gens de mer qui travaillent à bord des navires qu'ils immatriculent. Les États fournisseurs de main-d'œuvre, eux, semblent rechigner à l'idée de la mise en place d'une réglementation rigoureuse et rigoureusement appliquée à l'égard des agences qu'ils accueillent, en raison des considérations économiques (qui semblent prévaloir). Dans de telles circonstances, les États du port sont devenus de véritables remparts en matière de protection des gens de mer. Cette recherche propose une réflexion sur des mécanismes, y compris des mécanismes de responsabilisation des agences de *manning*, afin de faire émerger un ensemble de procédés devant permettre de garantir un travail décent des gens de mer recrutés par l'intermédiaire de ces agences. The maritime industry has undergone far-reaching changes that have affected not only commercial relationships associated with shipping, but also labor relations that arise when seafarers are employed on board ships. One concrete manifestation of these changes has been the use by shipowners of entities specializing in the supply of crew members. Known as manning agencies or manpower suppliers, these entities facilitate recruitment procedures for shipowners, and at the same time act as job providers for seafarers. However, some of the behaviour of manning agencies can jeopardize the protection of seafarers and their rights. As a result, activities of manning agencies have called for a legal framework. Despite the existence of international and national rules that form an impressive framework, some questions remain. These relate not only to the conflict of laws and jurisdictions posed by the international nature of the activity of manning agencies, but also to the difficulties involved in determining the true employer of the worker within the framework of the tripartite employment relationship that arises. The free registration of ships and the phenomenon of flags of convenience have called into question to the primary role that flag states play in protecting seafarers working on board the ships they register. Labour-supplying states, for their part, seem reluctant to introduce thorough regulations and apply them thoroughly to the agencies they host, given the economic considerations. As a consequence, port states have assumed bulwark functions when it comes to protecting seafarers. This research proposes an examination of mechanisms, including accountability mechanisms of manning agencies, with the aim to put forward a set of processes that guarantee decent work for seafarers recruited through these agencies.

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Türk mortgage sistemi veya mortgage menkul kıymetleştirmesi ve İpoteğe Dayalı Menkul Kıymetler-İDMK ihracı, sistemsel bütün olarak ilk kez uygulamada "Mortgage Kanunu" olarak da anılan 5582 sayılı "Konut Finansmanı Sistemine İlişkin Çeşitli Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılması Hakkındaki Kanun" (Konut Finansmanı Kanunu) ile 2007 yılında düzenlenmiştir. Meri'i düzenlemeler bakımından İDMK ihracı 6362 sayılı Sermaye Piyasası Kanunu (SerPK) madde 58 ve III-58.1 sayılı Varlığa ve İpoteğe Dayalı Menkul Kıymetler Tebliği (VİDMK Tebliği) ile düzenlenmiştir. Çalışmamızın amacı ve kapsamı, bünyesinde tek bir çalışmada ele alınması olanaksız sayıda hukuki düzenleme, kavram, kurum ve ilişki barındıran mortgage sistemini sermaye piyasası bakış açısıyla mevzuat tekrarlarından arındırılmış özlü tespit ve değerlendirmeleri esas alacak şekilde ele almaktır. Çalışmamızda mortgage sistemi kavramsal olarak gerçek anlamı ile ortaya konulacak ve ayrıca sistemin varlık nedeni ve özünü oluşturan sermaye piyasası unsuru olarak İDMK'ya ilişkin tespit, değerlendirme ve öneriler yer almaktadır. Mortgage ifadesi dar anlamda, Anglo-Sakson hukukunda kullanılan mortgage rehni ve mortgage teminatlı finansman alacaklarını ifade etmektedir. Mortgage terimi, sermaye ve finans piyasaları bakımından ise mortgage teminatlı alacakların İpoteğe Dayalı Menkul Kıymetler (İDMK/mortgage-backed securities-MBS) ihraç edilerek menkul kıymetleştirildiği (securitization) sistemi anlatmaktadır. Mortgage sistemi veya menkul kıymetleştirmesi ve İDMK ihracı ilk olarak Amerika Birleşik Devletleri (ABD) hukukunda uygulanmıştır. Mortgage sisteminin varlık nedeni, sermaye piyasalarından İDMK ihracı yoluyla en az maliyetle ve güvenilir bir şekilde finansman sağlanmasıdır. İDMK ihracı, mortgage (ipotek) teminatlı finansman alacaklarının, mortgage sistemi içerisinde gerçek satışa (true sale) dayalı olarak bilânço dışına çıkarılması ve menkul kıymetleştirilmesi ile gerçekleştirilmektedir. Bu nedenle İDMK, gerçek satışa dayalı bilânço dışı olarak gerçekleştirilen gerçek (geleneksel) menkul kıymetleştirme ürünü bir menkul kıymet niteliğindedir. Toplam beş bölümden oluşan Tez çalışmamızın ilk bölümünde, mortgage sistemi kavramı teknik anlamıyla değerlendirilecek, sistemin tarihi gelişim süreci ve ilişkili düzenlemeler ve niteliği olarak menkul kıymetleştirme ele alınacaktır. Çalışmamızın ikinci bölümünde, mortgage sisteminin işleyişi, sistemde kullanılan varlıklar ve safhaları, sistemin özgün terminolojisi berberinde değerlendirilecektir. Çalışmamızın üçüncü bölümünde ise mortgage sisteminde yer alan kuruluşlar gene sistemin kendine özgü kavram ve gereklilikleri dahilinde değerlendirilecektir. Çalışmamızın dördüncü bölümünde sistemin hedefi ve varlık sebebi olan İDMK tanımı türleri ve benzeri menkul kıymetler beraberinde ele alınacaktır. Çalışmamızın beşinci ve son bölümünde ise İDMK ihracı ile sağlanan sebepler ve ihracını güçleştiren sebeplere dair tespit ve önerilerimiz topluca yer alacaktır. Tezimizin sonuç kısmında ise gerçek anlamıyla uygulanması halinde ülkemizin hızlı ve sürdürülebilir bir biçimde kalkınmasını sağlayabilecek niteliği haiz bir sistem olan mortgage sistemi ve onun ürünü menkul kıymet olan İDMK'nın ihracı bakımından tespit ve çıkarımlarımız yer alacaktır. Tezimiz genel olarak Türkiye'nin finansal kurumlara, İDMK'yı, iç pazardaki ekonomik kalkınmayı hızlandırmak için sermaye piyasalarından fon sağlamak için kullanma önerisi de getirmektedir. Bu tez ile Türkiye'de finans kurumlarının MBS ihraçları için alternatif bir finansman kaynağı olarak dikkat çekilmesi de amaçlanmaktadır. Burada kamusal bir gelişme olarak ifade edilecek olursak, "Yeni Ekonomi Program", finansal derinliğin ve istikrarın sağlanması için Türkiye'deki menkul kıymetleştirmelerin (İDMK ihraçları dahildir) desteklenmesi tedbirini de içermektedir. The Turkish mortgage system, mortgage securitization, and the issuance of Mortgage-Backed Securities (MBS), collectively referred to as the "Mortgage Law," were initially regulated in 2007 by Law No. 5582, also known as the "Law on Various Amendments Regarding the Housing Finance System" (Housing Finance Law), commonly referred to as the "Mortgage Law" in practical application. In terms of secondary regulations, the issuance of MBS is governed by Article 58 of the Capital Markets Law No. 6362 (CML) and the Communiqué on Asset-Backed Securities and Mortgage-Backed Securities (ABS-MBS Communiqué). The aim and scope of this study involve a comprehensive examination of the mortgage system, which encompasses numerous legal regulations, concepts, institutions, and relationships. The focus is on providing concise assessments and evaluations, free from legal redundancies, based on the perspective of capital markets. The study conceptually presents the mortgage system in its true sense, addressing the essence and purpose of the system, particularly focusing on Mortgage-Backed Securities (MBS) as a capital market element, along with relevant findings, evaluations, and recommendations. In a narrow sense, the term "mortgage" refers to the mortgage lien and financing receivables secured by mortgages in Anglo-Saxon law. In the context of capital and financial markets, the mortgage system refers to the securitization of mortgage-backed receivables by issuing Mortgage-Backed Securities (MBS). The mortgage system, its securitization, and MBS issuance were initially implemented in the United States (US) legal framework. The raison d'être of the mortgage system lies in obtaining financing from capital markets through the issuance of MBS at minimal cost and in a reliable manner. MBS issuance involves transferring mortgage-backed financing receivables out of the balance sheet through a true sale mechanism within the mortgage system, facilitating their securitization. Therefore, MBS represents a security of a true sale-based, off-balance-sheet, and traditional nature. The thesis comprises five sections. The first section evaluates the concept of the mortgage system in technical terms, discussing its historical development, related regulations, and its nature as securitization. The second section delves into the operation of the mortgage system, the assets used, stages involved, and the system's unique terminology. The third section examines the institutions within the mortgage system, considering their specific concepts and requirements. The fourth section covers the objective of the system and the definition of MBS, its types, and similar securities. The fifth and final section consolidates our findings and recommendations regarding the reasons for MBS issuance and the challenges hindering it. In the conclusion, we highlight the potential of the mortgage system and its product, MBS, as a system capable of fostering rapid and sustainable development in Turkey when implemented in its true sense. The thesis suggests that financial institutions in Turkey consider MBS issuances as an alternative source of funding, aiming to accelerate economic development in the domestic market. Additionally, the study aligns with the "New Economic Program," which includes measures to support securitizations in Turkey, including MBS issuances, to ensure financial depth and stability.

The surge in online interactions has led to a parallel rise in civil and commercial disputes that transcend geographical boundaries. As traditional dispute resolution mechanisms face challenges adapting to this evolving paradigm, conflicts increasingly migrate to online platforms. Within this proliferating landscape, it is crucial to recognize the scarcity of research devoted to Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) providers and the myriad types of services they currently offer to users worldwide. Despite the ongoing geographical expansion of ODR, the inquiry into how procedural justice principles manifest in these digital dispute resolution systems remains notably under-explored. A growing body of literature underscores that procedural justice is critical for building users’ trust, enhancing the legitimacy of organizations among communities, and fostering compliance with outcomes. The ability of ODR providers to meet users' expectations in terms of procedural justice can significantly shape users' perception of ODR institutions as trustworthy and dependable. This bears paramount implications for the ongoing development of ODR, whose acceptance varies widely across jurisdictions. This doctoral thesis delves into the intricate intersections of procedural justice within the realm of international civil and commercial ODR, examining the nuanced dynamics that emerge in virtual spaces. Ultimately, it seeks to understand how procedural justice principles, rooted in the notion of fairness, manifest and evolve in the context of ODR, exploring the impact of digital interventions on the perceived fairness of dispute resolution processes. Understanding procedural justice in ODR is not merely an academic pursuit; it holds profound implications for legal practitioners, policymakers, and society at large. This research aims to contribute valuable insights that can inform the design of fairer and more effective ODR systems.

Mergers in the Italian and European legal system. The Italian legal landscape for mergers. Applicable regulations. Stages of the merger process. The first phase: the merger plan. The second phase: the merger resolution. The third phase: the merger deed. The protection of creditors. The invalidity of the merger. The FIAT-Chrysler merger. Evolution of the legal nature of mergers in the Italian legal system: legislative and jurisprudential perspectives. The extinguishing-successory orientation. The evolutionary–modifying orientation. Court of cassation ruling no. 2637 of 2006. Return to the extinguishing-successory orientation: judgement no. 21970/2021. Debate surrounding judgement 21970/2021: criticism and support. Mergers in the American legal system. The American legal landscape for mergers. The evolution of the US corporate law of mergers. Sources of corporate law. The merger process. Economic motives for mergers. Steps of the merger procedure. The merger plan. Merger between parent and subsidiary or between subsidiaries. Articles of merger. Effects of merger. Abandonment of a merger or share exchange. The ExxonMobil merger. Comparative analysis of the Italian and American legal systems. Historical and constitutional influences on Italian and American legal systems. Differences and similarities in the merger process. Comparison of FIAT Chrysler and ExxonMobil mergers.

This thesis focuses on the relationship between contract law and corporate insolvency law as it investigates the idea and protection of executory contracts within restructuring proceedings. However, preserving these agreements frequently necessitates taking legal action against established contract law tenets like the freedom of contract and the duty to perform. The study looks at how difficult it can be to keep debtor and creditor interests in balance, especially when there are disruptions brought on by insolvency. The study suggests ways to improve the efficacy of restructuring proceedings by analysing the EU Directive on restructuring and insolvency, contrasting practices in various jurisdictions, and evaluating the impact on stakeholders. The goal of this study is to protect the rights of all parties involved in corporate restructuring while advancing the creation of legal frameworks that facilitate effective restructuring.

This study aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive legal analysis of international bankruptcy and related issues by drawing on comparative law and private international law. In this context, this thesis aims to determine the legal qualifications of the transactions that fall within the framework of international insolvency and to address the problems related to these issues in detail. This study consists of five chapters. The first chapter examines the specific aspects of insolvency in the fields of debt enforcement, procedural law, and substantive law. The main argument in this chapter is that bankruptcy law has its own normative scope. In this framework, bankruptcy law and enforcement law regulate areas that can be analytically distinguished from each other. The law of debt enforcement regulates all actions and procedures based on the state's sovereignty and power to use force. On the other hand, bankruptcy law can be characterized as a multi-layered and unique branch of substantive law that has features related to the law of obligations or commercial law, depending on the context. The first chapter begins with an etymology of the concept of insolvency across various languages. The Turkish word "iflâs" is highlighted, which comes from the Arabic word "fls" (fels), indicating a state of destitution and insolvency. In English, the term "bankruptcy" has historical origins that trace back to medieval Italy, where merchants who couldn't pay their debts had their trading benches physically broken, a practice referred to as "banca rotta." The main goal of this analysis is to emphasize that historically, insolvency has been perceived as a condition of incapacity and deficiency resulting in disgrace, even in the mildest scenarios. In terms of the severity of Roman law, penalties such as enslavement or death for bankrupt individuals illustrate how grave the offense of bankruptcy was considered. Furthermore, during the Middle Ages, those in financial distress were scorned by society. Meanwhile, with the modernization of legal systems, efforts have been made to alleviate the negative social perception of individuals who become insolvent. These efforts have led to changes in the law and the emergence of new terminologies. Over time, legal terminology across different countries has evolved. For example, in the US, the terms "debtor" and "insolvency" are now more commonly used in place of "bankrupt" and "bankruptcy" respectively, in the context of insolvency law. In line with these changes in terminology, reform efforts at both the comparative and international law levels aim to diminish the stigma attached to insolvent individuals and companies, striving to provide them with the opportunity for a fresh start within the economic order. Moving on, the first section distinguishes between the narrow and broad meanings of the concept of insolvency in comparative law and international instruments. Throughout this study, bankruptcy in its narrow sense refers specifically to procedures that involve the liquidation and distribution of a debtor's assets and/or the dissolution of their legal personality to satisfy creditors in accordance with applicable laws. In contrast, the broad sense of insolvency encompasses the debtor's objective inability to pay, the formal declaration of this predicament by a competent authority, body, or the debtor themselves, as well as all subsequent actions taken to settle claims and manage the debtor's assets. Within this expansive interpretation of insolvency, the study underscores the principle of collectivity, which is critical in administering bankruptcy procedures. Additionally, it conceptualizes bankruptcy as a wide-ranging framework, starting from liquidation in the narrowest scope and extending to include debt restructuring and non-judicial workout solutions. Furthermore, this study primarily considers insolvency law as substantive law. It supports the notion that while insolvency contains procedural elements, these are not its defining features. The focus here is on the processes associated with the initiation, execution, management, and conclusion of bankruptcy proceedings. The second chapter of the study is dedicated to the conceptual framework and theoretical perspectives of international insolvency. The term "international insolvency" refers to various situations in which a debtor may have a cross-border element—such as operating in more than one country, being domestic with creditors located abroad, being a foreign entity with domestic creditors, or having assets dispersed over multiple countries. In this section, the chapter elaborates on various theoretical approaches to the legal framework governing international insolvency. These approaches include territorialism, which is based on the principle of territoriality or locality; universalism, which advocates for consistent practices and standards in cross-border insolvencies; and the hybrid approach. Due to the practical difficulties encountered with universalism, mixed approaches have been developed, offering alternatives such as cooperative territoriality, multilateralism, contract theory, universal proceduralism, and modified universalism. The examination of these approaches, each presenting distinctive advantages and challenges, provides significant insights into the ongoing and potential resolutions for issues in international insolvency. Chapter Three outlines a general framework that defines the relationship between international insolvency and the law. In this chapter, the legal nature of international insolvency law is first explained, and a reminder is provided of the modern insolvency law approach introduced in the first chapter. Within this framework, the aim of insolvency law is to develop a collective procedural structure founded on the principles of justice that considers the interests of all parties involved. It seeks to maximize the value of the debtor's assets, minimize waste, ensure the rescue of viable businesses, and develop appropriate techniques for these purposes. The transnational aspect of bankruptcy introduces an additional layer of complexity to the existing definition and framework. Consequently, international insolvency law is evolving into a distinct system within private international law, specifically catering to transnational insolvency cases. This system often described as "sui generis" strives to fulfill the objectives of insolvency in scenarios that transcend national borders. The growing field of transnational insolvency anticipates the effective centralization of proceedings that are acknowledged and aided by foreign authorities. The goal is to maximize asset values and ensure business recovery while carefully considering the interests of all affected parties, regardless of their location. In international insolvency cases, it's important to balance the interests of creditors and debtors. Factors like nationality or foreign status, as well as the role of the state as an entity under international law, should be considered in this balance. In order to establish this balance, it is of great importance to explore harmonious and effective solutions by evaluating these interests in a holistic framework. Practices in international insolvency and comparative law have tended towards a perspective that aims to harmonize and coordinate different interests. In fact, this is the main concern of the modified universalism approach. From this perspective, the final section of the third chapter examines various legal frameworks or regimes for international insolvency. This includes a study of the ecosystem of Model Laws related to insolvency, with particular emphasis on the 1997 UNCITRAL Model Law, as well as the regulations in force within the European Union, the United States, and Latin American countries. The fourth chapter delves into international insolvency by addressing traditional concepts of international procedural law. It evaluates the criteria for international jurisdiction in insolvency proceedings, the recognition of foreign insolvency judgments, and the determination of applicable law. These topics are scrutinized using a comparative legal framework, drawing from the UNCITRAL Model Law, regulations in the U.S. and the EU, and various national laws, which the third chapter discusses. Techniques from comparative and private international law are employed to analyze these issues, which can be summarized as follows: Firstly, in the realm of international insolvency and private international law, a common challenge involves identifying the competent court for the proceedings. This issue is often resolved using the principle of the Center of Main Interests (COMI). COMI refers to the primary location of a company's or legal entity's operational activities in the context of insolvency or debt restructuring. It is typically associated with the site of the debtor's main administrative office, the place where significant operations are conducted, or the location where crucial commercial decisions are made. Additionally, the issue of forum shopping often arises in discussions of international jurisdiction and represents the second significant concern. In the context of international insolvency, 'forum shopping' is the practice where an internationally active company selects a jurisdiction that is perceived to offer the most favorable legal environment for its restructuring or insolvency processes. The company then takes steps to establish its case in the chosen jurisdiction in hopes of benefiting from its laws in the event of insolvency. The modified universalism approach argues for a legal framework where the primary insolvency proceedings are initiated in the debtor's Center of Main Interests (COMI), while ancillary proceedings may occur in other jurisdictions. Such a framework aims to curb the practice of forum shopping. Both the UNCITRAL Model Law and the EU Insolvency Regulation embrace this approach, thus promoting a more orderly and predictable system for handling cross-border insolvencies. The second issue addressed in Chapter Four is the recognition of the effect of foreign insolvency procedures. This section scrutinizes how foreign insolvency procedures interrelate with existing cross-border insolvency frameworks and evaluates the limitations imposed by such frameworks on the ability of these procedures to be recognized and enforced. Initially, the discussion focuses on how international frameworks handle the concept of a foreign procedure, beginning with standards set by the Model Law and then proceeding to the foreign insolvency procedures outlined in the EU Insolvency Regulation. The characteristics of the procedures in these two contexts are compared, and the techniques foreign courts apply to recognize, enforce, or reject them are examined. The third issue explored in the fourth chapter is the rules concerning the applicable law, with a focus on the principle of Lex fori concursus. This concept is rooted in the broader lex fori principle, a cornerstone of private international law. Under the Lex fori principle, a court typically applies its own domestic law—the law of the forum—to decide both procedural matters and, in the context of insolvency, the substantive rules governing the proceedings. This application of domestic law aligns with the state's sovereignty, as procedural law is deemed an extension of a nation's public law framework. According to the principle of Lex fori concursus, the law of the country where the insolvency proceedings are initiated typically governs the insolvency process and any related legal actions. This principle is formalized as a general rule in Article 7 of the EU Insolvency Regulation. Nevertheless, the regulation also delineates specific exceptions to this principle in subsequent provisions. These exceptions, as articulated in the EU Insolvency Regulation, include the following: (1) Third parties' rights in rem; (2) set-off; (3) reservation of title; (4) contracts relating to immoveable property; (5) payment systems and financial markets; (6) contracts of employment; (7) rights subject to registration; (8) detrimental acts of the debtor; (9) effects of insolvency proceedings on pending lawsuits or arbitral proceedings and 10) Protection of third-party purchasers. Furthermore, public policy is also recognized as an exception. It is a general principle that when foreign court proceedings are concerned, the Lex fori concursus - the law of the place where the insolvency proceedings are occurring -should be applied by the local court. The public policy exception, however, might place restrictions on this principle. This safeguard, which bars the application of foreign laws that are in conflict with the fundamental principles of the local law, enables the local court to give preference to its own laws over those of another country under specific, limited circumstances in bankruptcy cases. Nevertheless, it is important to underline that the concept of public policy does not grant countries unfettered discretion. UNCITRAL emphasizes that for the exception to the lex fori concursus to be invoked on public policy grounds, the contravention must be "manifestly" evident, leaving no room for doubt. Chapter 5 explores the specific challenges associated with international insolvency, such as the identification of the debtor's assets, the imposition of insolvency seizures, the prioritization of claims, and the annulment of detrimental transactions intended to disadvantage creditors. Furthermore, the chapter examines the procedures governing insolvency and the complexities surrounding the insolvency of multinational corporations. Among these problems, under the section titled 'Determination of the Debtor's Assets and Insolvency Seizure,' the text mentions the difficult task of monitoring and recovering assets internationally in the digital age, where goods can rapidly move across borders. Variations in practices among different countries contribute to inconsistencies in this area and exacerbate challenges in insolvency cases. International commercial activities and cross-border bankruptcies further complicate the process of tracing and recouping assets and can result in conflicts between laws. The absence of a universal legal framework, applicable across all countries, poses a significant impediment to protecting assets and maximizing their recovery in the course of insolvency proceedings. In this context, there is a pressing need to cultivate global cooperation and establish mechanisms that address critical issues such as the identification of assets, the temporary seizure of assets, and the prevention of unauthorized transfers. For instance, the use of 'freezing orders'—the authority to impose temporary restrictions on the transfer, sale, or disposal of assets under foreign jurisdictions—has proven effective in safeguarding assets. Within the European Union, Articles 19(1) and 20(1) of the EU Insolvency Regulation mandate that an EU-wide suspension of transactions automatically takes effect upon the initiation of substantive insolvency proceedings in any Member State. Another issue discussed in the fifth chapter concerns the annulment of transactions made with the intent to harm creditors, an issue commonly referred to as 'avoidance.' This term describes any actions that undermine the debtor's ability to fulfill its obligations, thus impairing the rights of creditors by devaluing the debtor's assets or rendering them unreachable for creditor claims. The UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency and the EU Insolvency Regulation both seek to offer various solutions to this problem. Nevertheless, avoidance laws can differ significantly from one country to another, where legal systems have disparate criteria for assessing the validity of such transactions. A transaction that is deemed fraudulent in one jurisdiction could be considered valid in another. The chapter also addresses "conflicts of priorities" which present analogous challenges. The matter of creditor priority in international insolvency law underscores the absence of standardized regulations and systems, consequently impeding cooperation among courts and complicating the adjudication process. Considerable variations exist in the interpretation of equitable treatment for domestic and foreign creditors during insolvency proceedings, as well as in how such equity should be guaranteed. These complexities span from determining the sequence of repayment to more granular concerns regarding the handling of various types of creditors and their respective claims. These difficulties obstruct efforts to establish a consistent and harmonized framework for international insolvency law. In international insolvency cases, the varying legal traditions, economic levels of different countries, and cultural norms that shape business and economic practices necessitate a flexible framework capable of accommodating all alternatives—judicial and extrajudicial—to manage insolvency effectively. The prevailing trend in cross border insolvency law, as reflected in internationally recognized instruments, aligns with the general evolution of insolvency and restructuring law. This trend entails examining the compatibility of evolved insolvency procedures, which offer solutions for early-stage financial distress, with the mechanisms for recognition, cooperation, and legal assistance provided by international frameworks. Moreover, the impact of these procedures' implementation within the context of such frameworks is thoroughly considered. Chapter 5 concludes with a discussion on the insolvencies of multinational corporations, which have significantly grown in complexity due to the global economic downturns experienced over the past three decades. These insolvencies have carved out a distinct and intricate niche within international insolvency law, necessitating detailed scrutiny. The collapse of such large, cross-border enterprises highlights some of the most challenging facets of insolvency cases and has a profound influence on the global economic landscape. As this area intersects with the broader issues explored earlier in the study, it stands out as a fertile ground for legal innovation and swift progression, drawing upon advancements in legal theory, comparative law practices, and international regulations. The ongoing efforts and developments in this sector are proving essential in tackling these multifaceted challenges day by day. In conclusion, this study provides a thorough examination of the foundations, distinguishing traits, and practical applications of international insolvency law, framed within comparative and private international law. Its principal aim is to enrich the legal and theoretical discourse on cross-border insolvency by meticulously investigating the multifaceted procedures of insolvency in their global context. The historical development of insolvency and its integration into modern legal systems are explored, recognizing the profound influence of international insolvency's complexities on various legal frameworks. With a particular focus on two salient issues, the study confronts challenging topics such as the recognition and interrelationship of insolvency proceedings, their alignment with collaborative mechanisms and judicial support, the expansive definition and scope of insolvency across jurisdictions, and the intricate insolvencies faced by multinational corporations.

Teknolojik ilerlemenin bir sonucu olarak internet, telif hakkına konu fikri ürünlerin dağıtımının yapıldığı ana mecra haline gelmiştir. Dijital teknolojinin birçok yerde ve çok yönlü birçok kişi ya da kurum tarafından kullanılması, özellikle telif haklarına konu fikri ürünleri etkilemiştir. Avrupa Birliği (AB) ise Dijital Tek Pazar oluşturma stratejisi kapsamında düzenlemelerine 2019/790 sayılı Dijital Tek Pazarda Telif Hakları ve Bağlantılı Haklar Yönergesini eklemiştir. Söz konusu direktifin 8 ve 12. maddelerinde ise genişletilmiş toplu lisanslama (GTL) düzenlenmiştir. GTL özellikle kitlesel olarak dijital mecrada kullanımın yoğun olduğu müzik, işitsel-görsel, sinema vb. eserlerin teliften arındırılmış şekilde kullanılmasına olanak sağlayan bir sistemdir. Özellikle televizyon yayınlarında olduğu gibi bazı kullanımların çok miktarda eser veya telif unsuru içermesi nedeniyle, tüm hak sahipleri ile görüşülerek kullanım izinlerinin alınması dijitalleşen dünyada hem çok maliyetli hem de oldukça zahmetli ve hatta çoğu zaman imkânsız bir hal almaktadır. Fikri ürünler üzerinde hak sahibi olanların, telif haklarını kullanma yetkisini herhangi bir meslek birliğine ya da toplu hak takibi yapan bir organizasyona vermemesi, başka bir deyişle oranın bir üyesi olmaması halinde söz konusu kullanımlar için izin alınması hem kullanıcılar açısından oldukça külfetli, hem de hak sahiplerinin menfaatlerini koruma noktasında daha da büyük bir sorun teşkil etmektedir. Bunun yanında kültürel mirasın korunmasıyla yükümlü olan kurumlar açısından en önemli zorluklardan biri, telif hakkı sahiplerinin kimliklerinin belirlenmesi ve telif hakkı içeren eserlerin kullanılması için yetki ya da lisans alınması gibi telif hakkı temizliğine ilişkin süreçlerdir. Özellikle sınır ötesi online kullanımlar açısından düşünüldüğünde bu çok daha karmaşıktır. GTL düzenlemesi ile dijital çağda herhangi bir toplu hak yönetimi organizasyonuna üye olmayan eser ve bağlantılı hak sahipleri açısından da meslek birlikleri ile kullanıcılar arasında yapılan lisans sözleşmelerinin geçerli olmasını sağlayacak bir sistem öngörülmüştür. As a conclusion of technological progress, the Internet has named as the main channel where the intellectual products subject to copyright are distributed. The use of digital technology by many people or institutions in many places and in many ways has especially affected the products that are subject to copyright. On the other hand The European Union (EU), within the scope of the Digital Single Market creation strategy, has added the Digital Signal Market Directive EC 2019/790 to its regulations. Extended Collective Licensing (ECL) is regulated in 8th and 12th articles of the mentioned directive. ECL is a system that enables the copyright permisson obtained use of works such as music, audio-visual, cinema, etc., which are massively used in digital media. As some uses especially like television broadcasts include a large amount of copyright items or works, in the digitalized world, it becomes costly as well as tough and even imposibble obtaining authorisations from right-holders by negotiating with all of them. If the rightholders of the intellectual products don't give authorisation of the exercise of their rights to a collecting society in another words, ıf they are not member of this organisation, obtaining permission for such uses would be very hard and transaction costs would be very high for the users and creates a greater issue as for the protection of benefits of the right-holders. Besides that the largest copyright challenge for Cultural Heritage Instutitions is the process of identification of right holders of copyright and clearence of rights, i.e obtaining authorization of licences for use of in-copyright works. When it's considered for cross-border online uses, it is more complex. In the digital age with the regulation of ECL, a system has been predicted to ensure that the licence agreements made between collecting societies and users are valid for authors and related-right holders who are not members of any collective rights management organisations.

La protection provisoire devant la Commission et la Cour africaines des droits de l’homme et des peuples est l’un des domaines du système africain de protection des droits et des peuples jusque-là loin d’être défriché de manière exhaustive. Pourtant, la mise en œuvre du dispositif des mesures provisoires dans le contexte africain remonte à l’établissement de la Commission africaine. Cette thèse propose de scruter le régime juridique exact des mesures provisoires et les contours de la pratique. La thèse ici défendue est que malgré les difficultés que peut poser le régime des mesures provisoires, la Commission et la Cour africaines en font un mécanisme au service de la protection effective des droits fondamentaux des requérants. Toutefois, la concrétisation de cette finalité est compromise par le taux élevé d’inexécution de ces mesures en raison des insuffisances dont souffre la procédure devant ces organes auxquelles s’ajoute la mauvaise volonté des États parties. Cette thèse formule ainsi des solutions qui permettent à la Cour et à la Commission d’exploiter le potentiel du régime des mesures provisoires comme instrument au service de la garantie effective des droits fondamentaux des individus protégés par la CADHP.