Bibliographie sélective OHADA

L’imposition sur le revenu en République de Guinée héritée du système fiscal français, constitue l’un des éléments importants de la structure fiscale guinéenne. Mais paradoxalement, cette imposition, par rapport à la TVA, reste de nos jours très peu rentable au budget de l’Etat. Or, le potentiel fiscal autant vaste, prenant en compte les revenus provenant des activités commerciales, industrielles, artisanales, agricoles, professionnelles, etc., réalisées par les contribuables y existe ; mais non encore « judicieusement exploité ». En effet, parler d’imposition sur le revenu revient à se pencher aussitôt sur les deux dimensions fondamentales qui sous-tendent cette notion : l’impôt sur le revenu (IR) des particuliers et l’impôt sur le revenu des entreprises ou sociétés dont les enjeux contributifs caractérisant véritablement la problématique de cette imposition s’enchevêtre dans une série de réalités complexes d’ordres politique, socio-économique, environnemental, juridique, etc., différentes d’un pays à un autre et d’une communauté à une autre.Le but ultime visé par cette thèse est de faire un constat diagnostic pertinent afin de retracer les causes et les effets de la faible part de l’imposition sur le revenu dans les recettes fiscales intérieures et de proposer des solutions efficaces en vue d’améliorer la rentabilité de l’IR et de l’impôt sur les bénéfices des sociétés qui impacterait tant soit peu la performance des services du fisc, du budget de l’Etat, de l’économie nationale et du système fiscal en République de Guinée.

La préservation de la bonne santé du secteur bancaire a toujours été au cœur des préoccupations de la profession bancaire mondiale. La lutte contre le blanchiment des capitaux constitue un moyen pour les banquiers de préserver cette santé. En effet, les banques camerounaises et françaises bien qu’assujetties à la lutte contre le blanchiment des capitaux, ont plus d’un intérêt à mettre en œuvre le dispositif préventif anti-blanchiment. D’une part, au niveau organisationnel, les banques camerounaises et françaises se sont dotées d’un service anti-blanchiment et de dispositifs informatiques qui veillent à stopper leur utilisation à des fins de blanchiment de capitaux. Au plan fonctionnel, les obligations de vigilance imposées aux banques au titre de la lutte contre le blanchiment des capitaux rejoignent et renforcent les règles bancaires déjà instaurées en vue d’une saine pratique des activités bancaires. Cependant, le dispositif préventif anti-blanchiment n’a pas été bien accueilli au sein de la profession bancaire. Pour cause, celui-ci s’attaquait à des principes chers à la profession bancaire notamment, le secret bancaire et le devoir de non-ingérence. De même, la mise en œuvre du dispositif a fait naître de nouvelles obligations dont la violation fait l’objet de sanctions.

Avec les orientations prises en 2002 par la Commission Bancaire de l’Afrique Centrale (COBAC) en vue de développer les activités microfinancières, le métier de la microfinance s’est transformé dans sa forme organisationnelle (en passant de l’informel au formel) mais aussi dans sa relation avec son environnement. L’observation du terrain met en lumière que cette perspective est largement déterminée par la coopération entre les très petites entreprises (TPE) et les établissements de microfinance (EMF) dont les pratiques managériales sont soumises à l’épreuve de la réglementation. A ce titre, la réglementation conditionne les pratiques des acteurs, et donc devrait contribuer au développement du marché et assurer la pérennité des EMF et TPE à travers leur coopération. Par rapport à ce qui précède, quels enseignements peut-on tirer de l’expérience gabonaise afin de générer une meilleure compréhension du problème de l’impact de la réglementation sur les acteurs du marché de la microfinance? Ce travail révèle qu’en environnement institutionnalisé, les EMF sont partagés entre deux attitudes : financière ou sociale. Il fait apparaître que plusieurs TPE, porteuses de projets, n’arrivent pas à bénéficier de l’offre du marché microfinancier. Ce paradoxe nous amène alors à interroger les différents comportements que la réglementation du marché de la microfinance traduit et induit. Nous avançons que ces comportements, de même que leur interaction, agissent sur la coordination des acteurs, c'est-à-dire sur la manière dont les EMF et les TPE sont gérés, ainsi que sur la coopération EMF/TPE. Ce travail participe ainsi à une meilleure compréhension du marché de la microfinance au Gabon.

Türk Hukuku'nda navlun (deniz yolu ile eşya taşıma) sözleşmeleri; yolculuk çarteri sözleşmesi ve kırkambar sözleşmesi olmak üzere iki ana gruba ayrılmıştır. Bunlardan çarter sözleşmeleri arızi deniz taşımacılığında, kırkambar sözleşmesi ise genellikle düzenli hat taşımacılığında kullanılır. Günümüzde deniz taşımacılığında yaşanan gelişmelerin sonucu olarak düzenli hat taşımacılığının ve kırkambar sözleşmesinin önemi artmaktadır.Bu tezde; Türk Hukuku'nda kırkambar sözleşmesi kavramı, sözleşmenin asli unsurları, özellikleri, benzer sözleşmelerle karşılaştırılması, sözleşmeye uygulanacak hükümlerin tespiti gibi konuların yanında sözleşmenin tarafları, ilgili kişileri, sözleşmenin ifasında yer alan yardımcı kişileri, tarafların hak ve yükümlülükleri ve sözleşmenin sona ermesine değinilmiş Türk Ticaret Kanunu ve diğer mevzuat hükümlerinden, ilgili uluslararası andlaşmalardan, ticari örf-adet kurallarından, yüksek mahkeme kararlarından, öğretiden, uygulamada kullanılan tip sözleşme ve konişmento örneklerinden yararlanılmıştır. In Turkish Law, contracts of affreightment are divided into two main cathegories which are; voyage charter and contract of common carriage of goods. While the former is being used in tramp shipping, the latter is being used in liner shipping. As a result of recent developements in carriage of goods by sea, the importance of liner shipping and contract of common carriage of goods has been rising.This thesis is based on; Turkish Commercial Code, other related national regulations and international agreements, customs, decisions of high courts, doctrine, mostly used standard contract and bill of lading forms. In this thesis; the chracteristics, parties, differences from other contracts, rights and obligations of the parties and termination of contract of common carriage of goods have been analysed.

Recently, South African company law underwent a dramatic overhaul through the introduction of the Companies Act 71 of 2008. Central to company law is the promotion of corporate governance: companies no longer are accountable to their shareholders only but to society at large. Leaders should direct company strategy and operations with a view to achieving the triple bottom-line (economic, social and environmental performance) and, thus, should manage the business in a sustainable manner. An important question in company law today: In whose interest should the company be managed? Corporate governance needs to address the entire span of responsibilities to all stakeholders of the company, such as customers, employees, shareholders, suppliers and the community at large. The Companies Act aims to balance the rights and obligations of shareholders and directors within companies and encourages the efficient and responsible management of companies. The promotion of human rights is central in the application of company law: it is extremely important given the significant role of enterprises within the social and economic life of the nation. The interests of various stakeholder groups in the context of the corporation as a “social institution” should be enhanced and protected. Because corporations are a part of society and the community they are required to be socially responsible and to be more accountable to all stakeholders in the company. Although directors act in the best interests of shareholders, collectively, they must also consider the interests of other stakeholders. Sustainable relationships with all the relevant stakeholders are important. The advancement of social justice is important to corporations in that they should take into account the Constitution, labour and company law legislation in dealing with social justice issues. Employees have become important stakeholders in companies and their needs should be taken into account in a bigger corporate governance and social responsibility framework. Consideration of the role of employees in corporations entails notice that the Constitution grants every person a fundamental right to fair labour practices. Social as well as political change became evident after South Africa's re-entry into the world in the 1990s. Change to socio-economic conditions in a developing country is also evident. These changes have a major influence on South African labour law. Like company law, labour law, to a large extent, is codified. Like company law, no precise definition of labour law exists. From the various definitions, labour law covers both the individual and collective labour law and various role-players are involved. These role-players include trade unions, employers/companies, employees, and the state. The various relationships between these parties, ultimately, are what guides a certain outcome if there is a power play between them. In 1995 the South African labour market was transformed by the introduction of the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995. The LRA remains the primary piece of labour legislation that governs labour law in South Africa. The notion of industrial democracy and the transformation of the workplace are central issues in South African labour law. The constitutional change that have taken place in South Africa, by which the protection of human rights and the democratisation of the workplace are advanced contributed to these developments. Before the enactment of the LRA, employee participation and voice were much-debated topics, locally and internationally. In considering employee participation, it is essential to take due cognisance of both the labour and company law principles that are pertinent: the need for workers to have a voice in the workplace and for employers to manage their corporations. Employee participation and voice should be evident at different levels: from information-sharing to consultation to joint decision-making. Corporations should enhance systems and processes that facilitate employee participation and voice in decisions that affect employees. The primary research question under investigation is: What role should (and could) employees play in corporate decision-making in South Africa? The main inquiry of the thesis, therefore, is to explore the issue of granting a voice to employees in companies, in particular, the role of employees in the decision-making processes of companies. The thesis explores various options, including supervisory co-determination as well as social co-determination, in order to find solutions that will facilitate the achievement of employee participation and voice in companies in South Africa.

Without a precise definition either legally or on the judicial basis, public company owes its name through the participation of public power in its capital. Also, one has to make it clear that the concept of public power is not itself very clear. It is estimated that the state which became a shareholder and guarantor of social interest. The public company is regarded as the one which belongs wholly to the state and at the same time enjoying autonomy, cannot have its "survival" thanks to a law adapted to its nature and a good organization bodies that comprise it. Thus, it can only work function if the tasks to be performed by the corporate bodies are distributed accurately and if the roles in the public company are clearly defined by law. OHADA legislators did not hesitate to submit to the public company the Uniform Act related to commercial enterprises (AUSC) and Economical interest groups (GIE). But public behind it is, ever so slightly, an obstacle to its strict submission of AUSC and Economical interest group. Hence, a necessary approximation of national and community by coordinating legal systems. This implies interdependence between the provisions of the Uniform Act related to commercial enterprises and the Economical interest groups and those from national laws. The two national legal systems remain autonomous and do not influence each other. The results are in OHADA space textual duality to meet the demands of commercial enterprise, with the base and mark of the Uniform Act related to commercial enterprises and the Economical interest group; national texts playing a complementary and subsidiary role.

Anonim şirkette geçerli temel ilkelerden birisi, pay devrinin serbestliği ilkesidir. Anonim şirkette üyeliği temsil eden paylar, serbestçe devredilebilir ve miras yoluyla geçişe konu olabilir. Yeni dönemde, İsviçre Hukuku'nu takip eden TTK, pay devri sınırlamalarını "borsaya kote edilmiş" ve "borsaya kote edilmemiş" paylar üzerinden kurgulamıştır. Borsaya kote edilmemiş paylarda bağlam, gerçek bir devir sınırlamasıdır ve şirket devre onay vermeden, işlem geçerlilik kazanamaz. Ayrıca onay olmadan, payı devralan müktesibe, hiçbir hak geçmez. Kanun şirkete üç red nedeni vermiştir. Birincisi, şirket sözleşmesine yazılacak "önemli nedenler," ikincisi esas sözleşmede bir devir sınırlaması iradesi olmak kaydıyla, uluslararası literatürde "kaçınma klozu" olarak geçen "Escape-Clause" ve inançlı iktisaba karşı korunmadır. Borsaya kote edilmiş paylarda ise TTK ve SPKn. devrededir. TTK'da, borsaya kote edilmiş paylarda sadece "yüzdelik sınırlama"ya izin verilmekte ve payın geçişi ile birlikte (borsa dışı iktisapta bildirim), katılım hakları hariç, diğer haklar müktesibe intikal etmektedir. Bu paylar, yasal yolla intikal ettiğinde ise (miras, miras paylaşımı, cebri icra veya eşler arası mal rejimleri hükümleri), şirket müktesibi tanımak zorunda kalmaktadır. Buna karşılık, SPKn.'nın 137/3. maddesi gereğince şirket, borsada gerçekleşen işlemler sonucu payı edinen kişiyi, pay defterine kayıttan kaçınamaz. Bu tercih tartışmalar getirebilecektir. Özellikle borsa şirketlerinin kendini bağlamla koruyamayacak olmaları ile borsanın yapısına uygun olarak "mutlak devredilebilirlik" arasındaki çatışmanın sonuçlarını ilerleyen yıllar gösterecektir. Bağlam, anonim şirket düzeni ile temelde çatışan bir kurumdur. Ancak şirketin yabancılaşmaya karşı veya kendine özgü niteliklerinin korunması bakımından yararlıdır. Ancak bağlamın yasadaki düzenleniş şekli, devrin fiilen (de facto) engellenmesi şekline bürünmemelidir. Buna rağmen şirket düzeni ile temelde çelişki yaratan bir kurum olan "bağlam" ile ilgili tartışmalar, hiçbir zaman bitmeyecektir. One of the main respected principles in stock companies is the principle of transferability of shares. Shares representing membership in a stock corporation shall be freely transferred and inheritted. According to this principle each shareholder may depart from the stock company by transferring his/her share/shares principally whenever he wants. The Turkish Commercial Code based on Swiss Law regulated restriction of transferability as "Listed registered shares" and "Not listed registered shares". Restriction on transferability in "Not listed registered shares" is an exact restriction. Because where the consent required for transfer of shares is not given, the ownership of the shares and all attendant rights remain with the alienator (Turkish Commercial Code, Art. 494/1). Listed registered shares are regulated in both The Turkish Commercial Code and the Capital Market Law. In the case of listed registered shares, the company may refuse to accept the acquier as a shareholder only where the articles of association envisage a percentage limit on the registered shares for which an acquirer must be recognised as shareholder and such a limit is exceeded. But according to the art. 137/3 of Capital Market Law a stock corporation can not refrain from registering a shareholder who acquired listed registered shares to share register. Especially is protection of a stock corporation itself against hostile take-over by means of "restrictions on transferibility" important or absolute transferibility which is appropriate for the structure of stock-exchange? The results of the art. 137/3 of Capital Market Law will occur in the future.

Sermayenin yönetim kurulu kararıyla artırılması esasına dayanan kayıtlı sermaye sistemi, daha hızlı ve daha az masrafla ortaklığın sermayesinin artırılmasını amaçlar. 2499 sa. SerPK' den bu yana halka açık anonim ortaklıklara özgü bir kurum olarak Türk hukukunda uygulanmakta olan sistem, TTK ile birlikte halka açık olmayan anonim ortaklıklar için de uygulanabilir hale gelmiştir. Aynı esaslara dayandığı ve aynı amaca hizmet ettiği için kurumun, TTK ve SerPK' de ayrı ayrı düzenlenmesine lüzum yoktur. Sistem, yönetim kurulunun usulüne uygun olarak sermayenin artırılması konusunda yetkilendirilmesi suretiyle ortaklık açısından uygulanabilir hale gelir. Yetkilendirme işlemleri esas sözleşme değişikliğini gerektirir. Yönetim kurulunun sermayeyi artırma yetkisi, esas sözleşmede gösterilen kayıtlı sermaye ve yetki süresiyle sınırlıdır. Bu sınırlara ulaşılmışsa ve esas sözleşmeyle yeni yetki sınırları tespit edilmemişse, yönetim kurulu sermaye artırım kararı alamaz. Öte yandan, bu yetkilendirmede yönetim kuruluna, sermaye artırım yetkisi yanında sermayenin artırılmasıyla bağlantılı olup kanunda izin verilen konularda da yetki tanınabilir. TTK ve SerPK' deki ilgili hükümler incelendiğinde, kayıtlı sermaye sisteminde sermaye artırım kararının, esas sermaye sisteminde olduğu gibi, esas sözleşme değişikliği olarak kabul edildiği görülmektedir. Bu düzenlemeler, sadece genel kurulun toplanıp karar alması işlemleri için gerekli olan zamandan ve masraftan tasarruf edilmesini sağlar. Kayıtlı sermaye sisteminin daha etkin bir kurum olarak kullanılması, esas sözleşme değişikliğine ilişkin işlemlerin de bertaraf edilmesini gerekli kılar. Anahtar Kelimeler: Sermaye, Kayıtlı Sermaye, Sermaye Artırımı, Yönetim Kurulu, Anonim Ortaklık. The registered capital system is based on increasing the capital with decision of board aims to increase the company's capital faster and less costly. System that is applied in Turkish Law as an institution special to public companies since CMC no: 2499, becomes applicable for non-public companies with TCC. As based on the same principles and serves the same purpose, there is no need to regulate the institution in TCC and CMC separately. System becomes applicable in terms of company, by duly authorization the board concerning capital increase. Authorization procedures require amendment of company's article. Authority of capital increase of board is limited with the registered capital and authority period that are shown in company's article. When it reached this limits and determined any new authority limits with the company's article, board can not take a decision on capital increase. On the other hand, in this authorization, board also can be authorized on the issues that are in connection with capital increase and permitted by act, in addition to the capital increase authority. When analyzed the related provisions in TCC and CMC, it is seen that the capital increase in registered capital system, as in ordinary capital system, is accepted as company's article amendment. These regulations provide to save only from time and cost that are required for procedures to take decision of general assembly. Using the registered capital system as more effective institution requires to eliminate the procedures related to amendment of company's article. Keywords: Capital, Registered Capital, Capital Increase, Board of Directors, Joint Stock Corporation.

This thesis aims to provide an analytical framework to which investor-State arbitral tribunals can refer in cases where international trade law is invoked. The starting point of the present study is the trend in commentary on international trade and investment law, which makes the argument that international trade and investment law should be reconciled due to the clear "convergence" between (some of) their constitutive elements. This convergence argument is not misguided: there are similarities between the underlying principles of global trade and investment and, as such, a better coordination of these principles would be helpful for several reasons. Such reasons include legal certainty, reduction of transaction costs, better coherence in the operation of international agreements that now combine both trade and investment provisions, to name a few. However, no matter how reconcilable or converging the two disciplines may be, their enforcement mechanisms are structurally different and are likely to remain so even if the reforms towards a modernization of the investment dispute settlement (currently discussed at the EU policy level) are eventually implemented in the near future. In light of this last point, it is possible to claim that integration between trade law and investment law will only have limited or even negative effects if the trade and investment adjudicators continue to exercise their functions in an isolated manner, without taking cognizance of (i) the norms contained in the other discipline and (ii) the other adjudicator's scope of authority. Effective convergence of trade and investment entails a two-way process pursuant to which one adjudicator can use (i.e. take into account, refer to, apply, interpret and enforce) the law of the other and vice-versa. The thesis envisages one of the two dimensions of this process, namely the use of trade law by the investment adjudicator. Looking into the details of the convergence argument, the role of investment dispute settlement mechanism and the use of trade norms over the past two decades by litigants and arbitrators, the present study identifies both the legal techniques and obstacles these actors shall apply or go beyond in order to use trade norms in the most appropriate way and, more importantly, benefit from this use.

The purpose of this thesis is to do a comparative reappraisal of debt relief measures available to natural person debtors in the South African insolvency law. Although the broader South African natural person insolvency system currently includes three statutory debt relief procedures, namely, the sequestration procedure regulated by the Insolvency Act 24 of 1936, the administration order procedure in terms of the Magistrates Courts Act 32 of 1944 and the debt review procedure found in the National Credit Act 34 of 2005, not all natural person debtors have access to the system. The majority of this marginalised group are debtors with no income and no assets (the so-called No Income No Asset (NINA) debtors). Also, only one measure provides real debt relief in the form of a statutory discharge of debt. Furthermore, the existing measures have developed in a haphazard fashion which has led to a multiplicity of procedures, regulators and forums that resulted in ineffectiveness, inequality and uncertainty. The larger system therefore lacks proper policy considerations. This thesis provides the reasons for reform by, amongst others, arguing that the present situation is unconstitutional as it unreasonably and unfairly discriminates against the NINA group of debtors in particular. It measures the broader South African system against internationally accepted principles of efficient and effective natural person insolvency regimes. In this regard it is found that the system as a whole is seriously deficient. With reference to international principles and guidelines as well as suitable attributes found in foreign jurisdictions, the thesis concludes with suggestions for real law reform. Both substantive and procedural recommendations are made.

The field of customs is commonly referred to as that of imports and exports. It is perceived as a maze of processes, procedures, and forms required to enable a customs administration to perform their wide range of responsibilities. One of the responsibilities of a customs administration is the collection of duties, which necessitates classification of the goods in question. This study sets out to determine the extent of customs control in relation to tariff classification in South Africa. The starting point is the establishment of the foundations of customs, both internationally and in South Africa. After origin and valuation, tariff classification is the third technical customs-related focus area. An analysis of the responsibilities of the customs administration in South Africa confirms the importance of revenue collection and, subsequently, tariff classification. As a result of South Africa’s membership of the World Customs Organization, specific obligations in relation to tariff classification are incurred. The implementation and application of the international provisions are considered and compared in South Africa, Australia, and Canada. Not only is South Africa’s existing legislation considered, but also two new Acts. It is found that despite similarities in the implementation of the Harmonized System Convention into the legislation of the three countries, South Africa’s existing legislation makes the most detailed provision for the Harmonized System and its aids. This is based on the finding that the legislation in Australia and Canada, as well as the two new Acts in South Africa, do not have the same comprehensive provisions. A critical review of the varying processes of classification in the three countries suggests that more suitable and effective processes could be implemented in South Africa. In addition, a synopsis of some of the principles developed in case law is provided and compared. In relation to facilitation, the access to relevant information and the adequacy thereof, as well as the availability of rulings, are considered. Differences in the approach to dispute resolution in the three countries are furthermore provided. Proposals are made to address the discrepancies in the implementation and application of the legislation, the process of classification, the principles developed in case law, the enhancement of related guides, the publication of tariff classification rulings, and the extent of facilitation and dispute resolution. Finally it is recommended that an independent and expert tribunal is established to adjudicate technical customs matters.

There is extensive literature on conflict of legal norms and interests in international investment law. The dominant discourse is on the implications of treaty-based investment protection for sovereign regulatory autonomy. Mainstream scholarship critical of the scope and effect of investment treaties has taken the legal status of these treaties for granted. Little systematic attention has been paid to the capacity of states to make investment treaties and the obligations states can or cannot agree to under those treaties in light of their public interest obligations. Yet, this issue is of fundamental importance for three reasons. First, the case for states’ regulatory autonomy arises out of their primary duty to regulate in the public interest. This duty has its legal justification in national constitutions and international law. Second, treaty obligations are founded on the existence of legal norms necessary for the treaty to come into existence and which define the juridical consequences attached to the conclusion of the treaty. These matters are also determined by national constitutions and international law. Third, the limitations inherent in state-specific defences in international investment disputes settlement compel a proactive rethink of the conclusion of investment treaties and how they are interpreted. The question this thesis assesses with reference to Ghana then is: does a state that is legally required to act both under the terms of its constitution and international law in the public interest have the capacity to conclude investment treaties that expressly prevent or abridge the exercise of its public interest regulatory powers, and how should treaties adopted in breach of these obligations be interpreted? To address this question, three areas of public interest regulation that have featured prominently in investment arbitration serve as case studies: the jurisdiction of municipal courts, environmental protection and development policy. Based on the impact and potential limitations of standards of investment protection on these areas, the thesis argues that some treaties are incompatible with the public interest regulation obligations of Ghana under the Constitution and international law. The core proposition of the thesis is that the legal source and public purpose of the State’s powers prevent it from concluding agreements that directly prohibit public interest regulation or indirectly achieve that effect. Accordingly, the thesis proposes that the express and implied limitations on the duty to regulate in the public interest placed on investment treaty making powers of the State must inform the making of investment treaties and their interpretation. By its approach, this thesis establishes a principled basis for reflection on the limits to the State’s capacity to conclude investment treaties and on how they should be interpreted.

Bu çalışmanın amacı, 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu sistemi ile limited ortaklıklar hukukuna getirilen iki yeni müessesenin incelenmesidir. Ek ödeme ve yan edim yükümlülükleri incelenmiştir. Ortak, ortaklık, pay senedi, limited ortaklık sözleşmesi, esas sermaye, esas sermaye payı, bilânço, bilânço açığı, zarar, zararın kapatılması, edim, yükümlülük, ek finansman araçları, ortaklıktan çıkma ve çıkarılma kavramları ışığında ek ödeme ve yan edim yükümlülüklerinin bu kavramlarla irtibatı açıklanmıştır. Bu incelemeler sonucunda ek ödeme ve yan edim yükümlülüklerinin ülkemizde limited ortaklıkların ticaret hayatında yer edinebilmelerini ve gelişmesini temin edecek faydalı hukuki müesseseler olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Anahtar Sözcükler 1. Limited Ortaklıklar 2. 6102 sayılı Türk Ticaret Kanunu 3. Yükümlülük 4. Ek Ödeme Yükümlülüğü 5. Yan Edim Yükümlülüğü. The main purpose of this thesis is to research the new two concepts which were ordered by the system of new Turkish Commercial Code numbered 6102. In this thesis, the concepts of supplementary obligation of subscription and obligation of fulfilment were researched. The relationships between the concepts of supplementary obligation of subscription and obligation of fulfilment and the shareholder, limited company, certification of share, contract of limited company, capital, balance, deficit of balance, damage, annihilation of damage, fulfilment, obligation, departation and taking off were explained. The results of these research shows us that the concepts of supplementary obligation of subscription and obligation of additional fulfilment are beneficial concepts which are useful and necessary for surviving and developing materials for limited companies in Turkish business life. Key Words 1. Limited Companies 2. Turkish Commercial Code numbered 6102 3. Obligation 4. Supplementary Obligation of Subscription 5. Obligation of Additional Fulfilment

There is increasing interest in social and environmental issues throughout the world, especially in developed countries, where governments, organizations, and society well recognise the impact of business activities on the environment and society. Consequently, companies have potentially no alternative but to behave in a responsible manner, socially and environmentally, and to prove this by disclosing information about their related conduct. In this regard, banks play two important roles: first, as providers of social and environmental information in much the same manner as nonfinancial companies; and second, as providers of finance, by encouraging—if not obliging—bank customers to consider society and the environment in their bank-financed projects. Banks fulfil the latter role by requiring social and environmental information from companies when making lending decisions. Only a few Libyan studies have examined social and environmental issues in relation to economic activity, and these have generally revealed low levels of disclosure practice by organisations, including banks, in these areas. In addition, many changes have taken place in the Libyan economy and banking sector in recent years, including the establishment of a market exchange; decreased government participation in economic activities; and increased growth of the private sector that results, especially in the banking sector, with the entrance of foreign investors. These changes have placed a new emphasis on bank operations and the participation of banks in the Libyan economy. Thus, studying Libyan banks, in terms of their role in the environment and society, has attracted growing interest. As such, the core objective of this thesis has been to investigate the position of Libyan banks in relation to social and environmental issues and disclosure by considering their dual role as both providers and users of such information.

Tüm sermaye şirketlerinde, "sermaye" niteleyicisinin de belirttiği üzere, hissedarların şirket borçlarına karşı sorumluluğu, hissedarların şirkete hisse katılım değerleriyle sınırlı olduğu prensibi kabul edilir. Aynı şekilde, hissedarların ticari kararlardaki ağırlığı aynı sınırlama prensibine bağlı olarak belirlenir. Ticari şirketler hakkındaki Türk yasalarında ve Afrika Ticaret Kanunu Uyum Örgütünün (Organisation pour l'harmonisation en Afrique des droits des affaires, OHADA) yasalarında, sermaye şirketlerinde, "hissedarların sorumluluk ve ağırlığı prensiplerinin" sıkı bir şekilde korunduğunu gözlemleriz. Hissedarların genel olağan ve olağanüstü kurulları, genellikle, şirketin günlük yönetimini aşan kararları alma yetkisine sahiptir. Bu kararlar kesin belirlenmiş bir çoğunluğa göre alınır. Sermaye şirketlerinin günlük yönetimi alanında kalan bütün kararlar, bahsi geçen şirketlerin ticari katılım oranlarına göre – aslında hissedarlardakileri gelen – şirketlerin yönetim organlarının yetkilerinden kaynaklanır. Sermaye şirketlerinde, genel kurullar veya yönetim organları tarafından alınan, tüm kararlar, bu şirket hissedarları bahse geçen kurullara veya organlara katılmalarsalar bile, tüm şirket hissedarları için geçerli, uygulanabilir veya muhalefet edilebilirlerdir. Bu durum göz önüne alındığında şöyle bir çıkarımda bulunabiliriz: bu tür şirketlerde, hisselerin çoğunluğunu elinde bulunduran hissedarlar, bu şirketleri idare etme yetkisini de aynı zamanda elinde bulundurmaktadırlar. Birçok aynı durumda, çoğunluk hissedarları ve azınlık hissedarları arasındaki menfaat çatışmalarını gözlemleyebiliriz. Oybirliği veya nitelikli çoğunluk gerektiren kararlar dışında, çoğunluk hissedarları, olağan ve olağanüstü kurallarda tüm yetkiyi ellerinde bulundurmaktadır. Aynı şekilde, sermaye şirketlerinin yönetim organlarında, çoğunluk hissedarları her zaman yöneticileri tayin etmektedir. Bu koşullarda, kararların alınmasında, çoğunluğun azınlığın menfaatlerinin göz önüne aldığı durumlarla karşılaşmak pek olanaklı değildir. Bu nedenle, çoğunluğun karşılıklı menfaatleri ve azınlığın menfaatleri arasındaki denge sorunu, genellikle çoğunluğa karşı azınlığın haklarının ve menfaatlerinin korunması sorunuyla bir tutulmayı hak etmektedir. Özellikle, çoğunluğu kontrol etmek yoluyla suiistimalleri önlemek veya hissedarlar arasındaki çatışmaları azaltmak için, azınlığa bazı haklar ve yetkiler vermek suretiyle azınlığı korumak esastır. Ancak, bu hak ve yetkilerin kapsamı "çoğunluk tarafından yönetim prensibi" ile sınırlandırılmalıdır. Bu çalışma kapsamında, OHADA ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin ticaret hukukunda yer aldığı şekliyle, sermaye şirketlerinde azınlığın korunması hakkındaki uygulanan yolları analiz ettik. Bununla beraber, azınlık hissedarlarının korunması hakkında statü düzenlemelerini analiz edebilmek için, OHADA ve Türk hukukundaki, bazı sermaye şirketlerinin esas sözleşmelerini örnek olarak aldık. Hissedarlar, bu sözleşmelerde, yasalarda öngörülen düzenlemelerden daha iyi düzenlemeleri öngörme olasılığına sahip olmaktadırlar. Bu çalışmanın sonuçlarının, Afrikalı ve Türk hukukçular için olduğu kadar OHADA'ya üye ülkelerden Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'ne yatırım yapmak isteyen herkes için yararlı olacağı inancındayız. Dans les sociétés commerciales des capitaux, il existe le principe de délimitation des responsabilités des actionnaires par rapport aux dettes sociales et aux prises de décisions sociales. En lisant attentivement la législation turque sur les sociétés commerciales et la législation de l'Organisation pour l'harmonisation en Afrique des droits des affaires « Ohada» en sigle, nous observons également l'existence de ce principe de délimitation des responsabilités et de poids des actionnaires dans les sociétés commerciales des capitaux prévues dans toutes les deux législations. En Droit de l'Ohada tout comme en Droit Turc des sociétés commerciales, les assemblées générales des actionnaires dans les sociétés des capitaux, disposent de la compétence de prendre les décisions sur la politique générale et qui dépassent la gestion quotidienne des sociétés. Les décisions des assemblées générales sont prises, selon la majorité bien déterminée au cas par cas. Tandis que, les organes de gestion de ces sociétés, disposent des compétences pour décider sur la gestion quotidienne desdites sociétés. Toutes les décisions prises tant par les assemblées générales des actionnaires que par les organes de gestion des sociétés commerciales des capitaux, demeurent valables et opposables à tous les actionnaires sociaux; même à l'égard des actionnaires qui n'y ont pas participé. Au regard de cette observation, il nous est logique d'affirmer que dans les sociétés des capitaux, ce sont les actionnaires majoritaires qui disposent logiquement tous les pouvoirs de décider sur les sorts sociaux. Dans pareilles conditions, nous pouvons observer que les conflits d'intérêts entre les actionnaires majoritaires et ceux minoritaires, sont inévitables. Sauf pour les décisions qui nécessitent l'unanimité ou celles qui requièrent une majorité qualifiée, les actionnaires majoritaires détiennent tous les pouvoirs des décisions dans les assemblées et même dans les organes de gestion car, ce sont toujours les actionnaires majoritaires qui désignent les dirigeants de ces sociétés en fonctions de leurs poids sociaux. Il est ainsi peu probable que la majorité prenne en considération les intérêts de la minorité dans la prise des décisions. Pour cette raison, la question d'établir l'équilibre entre les intérêts respectifs des actionnaires majoritaires et ceux des minoritaires, mérite d'être assimilée en général à la question de la protection des droits et intérêts de la minorité contre la majorité. Plus précisément, il est indispensable de protéger la minorité en lui accordant certains droits et pouvoirs pour qu'elle puisse contrôler la majorité aux fins de prévenir les abus ou de limiter les conflits entre les actionnaires. Cependant, l'étendue de ces droits et de ces pouvoirs mérite d'être limitée par le principe de la gestion sociale par la majorité. Dans le cadre de cette étude, nous avons analysé la manière dont les actionnaires minoritaires sont protégés dans les législations de l'Ohada et turque. En plus, nous avons approfondi notre étude avec les analyses des dispositions statutaires y relatives d'une dizaine des sociétés commerciales des capitaux de deux Droits concernés car, les actionnaires disposent légalement le pouvoir d'en prévoir meilleur que ce qui était prévu par les législateurs. Nous sommes convaincus que les résultats de cette étude, seront théoriquement bénéfiques pour les juristes qui s'intéressent aux Droits turc et de l'Ohada et pratiquement importants pour toute personne qui souhaite investir tant dans la République de Turquie que dans l'un des dix-sept (17) pays membres de l'Ohada.