Bibliographie sélective OHADA

This dissertation suggests a new theory of lex mercatoria that takes into account the complex and spontaneous order of international commerce. Since the emphasis is put on the nature of this order, the concept of lex mercatoria is examined as an ex post governance mechanism resolving contractual disputes with a view to maintaining and restoring the order of international commerce, without focusing on the traditional distinction of the doctrine between national and non-national legal rules applicable to the substance of such disputes in explaining the concept. The aim is to reflect lex mercatoria’s subtle effect on the practice of international arbitration, and to provide an explanation of lex mercatoria as a solution to the problems of the institution of international arbitration in terms of uncertainty and unpredictability of awards, rather than representing it as a factor aggravating those problems. Lex mercatoria is defined as the law of adjudication of the disputes arising from international commercial contracts on the basis of a few substantive and procedural principles, under which the reasonable expectations of the parties to a particular contract become the single source of their contractual rights, obligations and risk allocations. The argument is that lex mercatoria can be applied to both the choice of law analyses and the substance of the disputes in international arbitration. In choice of law analyses, lex mercatoria addresses specific difficulties relating to the conflict of laws through a principled decision making, such as the applicable conflict rules, and the interpretation of the parties’ intentions as to the applicable substantive rules. In its substantive application, lex mercatoria deals with, either as lex contractus or as lex fori, the interpretation, supplementation and correction of the contract as well as the applicable national laws in accordance with the basic principles, on which the order of international commerce rests.

This dissertation suggests a new theory of lex mercatoria that takes into account the complex and spontaneous order of international commerce. Since the emphasis is put on the nature of this order, the concept of lex mercatoria is examined as an ex post governance mechanism resolving contractual disputes with a view to maintaining and restoring the order of international commerce, without focusing on the traditional distinction of the doctrine between national and non-national legal rules applicable to the substance of such disputes in explaining the concept. The aim is to reflect lex mercatoria’s subtle effect on the practice of international arbitration, and to provide an explanation of lex mercatoria as a solution to the problems of the institution of international arbitration in terms of uncertainty and unpredictability of awards, rather than representing it as a factor aggravating those problems. Lex mercatoria is defined as the law of adjudication of the disputes arising from international commercial contracts on the basis of a few substantive and procedural principles, under which the reasonable expectations of the parties to a particular contract become the single source of their contractual rights, obligations and risk allocations. The argument is that lex mercatoria can be applied to both the choice of law analyses and the substance of the disputes in international arbitration. In choice of law analyses, lex mercatoria addresses specific difficulties relating to the conflict of laws through a principled decision making, such as the applicable conflict rules, and the interpretation of the parties’ intentions as to the applicable substantive rules. In its substantive application, lex mercatoria deals with, either as lex contractus or as lex fori, the interpretation, supplementation and correction of the contract as well as the applicable national laws in accordance with the basic principles, on which the order of international commerce rests.

O presente estudo envolve-se com o tema da União Africana. Na sua abordagem procura analisar a relação do mercado comum africano com o desenvolvimento sustentável, transitando interdisciplinarmente em vários campos de conhecimentos, com ênfase nas Relações Internacionais, Direito Internacional, Economia, Política e História. A investigação, nesse sentido, tem como hipótese a afirmação de que a consolidação do processo de integração política do continente poderá, em primeiro momento, apresentar-se como medida necessária à sua unificação, para que seja realizado, em um segundo momento, por meio da integração econômica, o tão almejado mercado comum africano e seu desenvolvimento sustentável. Tal abordagem abrange diversas variáveis, especialmente o fenômeno do regionalismo, a integração política e econômica e o desenvolvimento sustentável. O objetivo principal consiste em abordar o universo da criação, evolução e consolidação da União Africana e do desenvolvimento sustentável, como instrumentos de superação das dificuldades da integração política e econômica da África. O resultado da pesquisa positiva a confirmação da hipótese, reconhecendo de que a unificação política será fundamental ao processo de integração econômica, rumo ao estabelecimento do mercado comum africano e seu desenvolvimento sustentável.This study involves the themes of the African Union and the sustainable development. In its approach it seeks to analyze the relationship of the African common market with sustainable development, transiting across disciplines in various fields of knowledge, with an emphasis on International Relations, International Law, Economic Policy and History. The scientific research relates to consolidation of the African Union and the sustainable development, whose chance to work is expressed in the sense of asserting that the consolidation of the process for political integration of the African Union may be first, presented as a measure for political unification of Africa and then, follow in a second step, to materialize through economic integration, its targeted African common market and the sustainable development. Such an approach includes several variables, especially the phenomenon of regionalism, the political and economic integration and the sustainable development. The main objective is to address the universe of creation, evolution and consolidation of the African Union and sustainable development, as a means of overcoming the challenges of political and economic integration of Africa. The result of the positive research confirms and recognizes the fact that the materialization of the African Union will help in the process of political and economic unity toward establishment of a common market and its sustainable development

La jurisprudence contribue à l’essor du droit OHADA, à travers l’éclairage ou la création des concepts, et l’application des dispositions des Actes uniformes. L’application des dispositions de droit OHADA se fait en amont par les juridictions nationales, et en aval par la Cour Commune de Justice et d’Arbitrage (CCJA) suivant les modes juridictionnel et arbitral. En droit OHADA, la jurisprudence de la CCJA est appréciée à travers la pertinence de ses avis consultatifs ayant valeur délibérante, ainsi que par rapport au contentieux et l’arbitrage. À la suite des juridictions inférieures des États parties, la CCJA connait des pourvois en cassation contre les décisions des juridictions internes traitant des questions relatives à l’interprétation des Actes uniformes. Elle est aussi compétente pour connaitre des questions d’arbitrage. Dans tous les cas, les décisions rendues par la CCJA s’imposent aux juridictions des États parties.

Milletlerarası ticarette, acenteler aracılığıyla yapılan ticarî işlemlerin önemli bir yeri vardır. Acenteler, tacirler ad ve hesabına sözleşme akdettikleri için, doğrudan temsil hükümleri doğmaktadır. Milletlerarası unsurlu acente ilişkisine uygulanacak hukuk ve bu statünün uygulama alanına giren meselelerin tespiti, kanunlar ihtilâfı hukukunda tartışmalı konulardan biridir. Bu çerçevede, acente ilişkisine uygulanacak hukuk, acente iç ve dış ilişkisi dikkate alınarak tespit edilmektedir. Acente iç ilişkisine uygulanacak hukuk, karşılaştırmalı hukukta ve Türk hukukunda akit statüsüne tâbi tutulmaktadır. Buna göre, acente ve temsil olunan, iç ilişkiye uygulanacak hukuku açıkça ya da zımnen serbestçe seçebilirler. Hukuk seçimi anlaşmasının yokluğunda ise, sözleşmeyle sıkı ilişkili hukuk esas alınır. Sözleşmeyle sıkı ilişkili hukukun tespitinde ise genellikle acentenin işyeri tercih edilmektedir.Acente dış ilişkisine uygulanacak hukuk ise, temsil statüsü olarak anılmaktadır. Buna göre, acente ilişkisinde temsil yetkisine uygulanacak hukuk bakımından, karşılaştırmalı hukukta ve Türk hukukunda, irade muhtariyeti reddedilmektedir. Ancak Avusturya hukuku, İspanyol hukuku ve La Haye Temsil Konvansiyonu'nda sınırlı hukuk seçimine imkân tanıyan düzenlemeler vardır. Milletlerarası acente ilişkisinin gereklerine uygun olarak, temsil olunanın seçtiği hukukun üçüncü kişi tarafından açıkça kabulü şartıyla böyle bir hukuk seçimi geçerli kabul edilebilmelidir. Acente dış ilişkisine uygulanacak hukukun, objektif kriterlere göre tespitinde ise, genellikle acentenin işyeri hukuku tercih edilmektedir. Ancak acentenin işyerinin olmaması ya da üçüncü kişinin bu işyerini bilmemesi hâllerinde, acentenin işyeri hukuku yerine temsil yetkisinin kullanıldığı yer hukukunun bu çerçevede ortaya çıkan ihtilâflara uygulanması kabul edilmektedir. The business transactions are made through agents have important role in the international trade. The direct agency relationship occurs through the agent. Because the agent serves with continuing authority to conclude contract on behalf of and in the name of its? principal. The law applicable to agency relationship with foreign element and finding of it?s application area?s topics are controversial in conflict of laws. In this context, the law applicable to agency relationship is determined according to internal side and external side of this relationship. The internal agency relationship is normally founded on the agency contract and, as such, is governed by the general principles of private international law applying to the contracts in comparative law and Turkish law. According to this, principal and agent may choose expressly or impliedly the law applicable to the internal agency relationship between them. If principal and agent have failed to indicate the law governing, it becomes necessary to determine the law with which the agency contract is most closely connected. In general, this maybe the law of the country in which the agent has his place of business.The law applicable to external agency relationship is known as the agency statute. According to this, the party autonomy has not been adopted as regards the agency statute in comparative law and Turkish law. But there are some exceptional regulations which adopt the resticted party autonomy. For example, Austrian law, Spanish law and, The 1978 Hague Convention on The Law Applicable to Agency allow party autonomy which is resticted. So, the law applicable to external agency relationship may be chosen in accordance with international agency relationship as long as third party expressly adoptes the law principal choices. While the law applicable to external agency relationship is determined in respect of objective criterias, in general, the agent?s place of business is prefered in comparative law like Turkish law. Nonetheless if there is no agent?s place of business or, the third party couldn?t know this place, this matter is governed by the law of place in which the agent act.

Countries enter into double tax agreements with the economic objective of preventing double taxation of cross-border transactions. To achieve this objective, the contracting states agree reciprocally to restrict their substantive tax law. That is, a major policy of double tax agreements is to reduce double taxation of residents of states that are parties to the agreement. Residents of third states sometimes contrive to obtain treaty benefits typically by interposing a person or a conduit entity in one of the contracting states. In order to ensure that a resident of a contracting state who claims treaty benefits is entitled to them in substance, double tax agreements should be interpreted according to their substantive economic effect. Generally, double tax agreements follow the pattern of the OECD Model Tax Convention. The OECD Model Convention addresses the double taxation of dividends, interest and royalties, commonly collectively known as "passive income", in Articles 10, 11 and 12 respectively. These provisions usually operate by reducing withholding tax imposed by a source state on passive income that flows from the source state to a resident state. In order to prevent a resident of a third state from obtaining a source state withholding tax reduction by interposing a person or a conduit entity in the resident state, the OECD Model Convention requires the immediate recipient of passive income to be the "beneficial owner" of that income. That is, the OECD Model Convention requires the immediate recipient to be an owner in a substantive economic sense. Courts and commentators have difficulty in interpreting and applying the concept of beneficial ownership to conduit entities that are corporations, commonly referred to as "conduit companies". They have attributed the cause of the difficulty to the absence of a definition of the term "beneficial owner" in the OECD Model Convention. This thesis argues that the difficulty in applying the beneficial ownership concept to conduit companies has arisen not because of the absence of the meaning of the concept, but because logically and from an economic perspective the concept cannot be applied to companies in general, not to conduit companies in particular. The beneficial ownership test was meant to be a test of economic substance. From an economic perspective, the benefit or the burden of a contract entered by a company is economically enjoyed or borne by its shareholders. That is, in substance a company cannot be considered as owning income beneficially. From this consideration, it follows that conduit companies can never be considered entitled to treaty benefits. Nevertheless, the OECD Model Convention applies the beneficial ownership test to conduit companies pursuant to an assumption that at least in some cases conduit companies can be the beneficial owners of passive income. The Model Convention's assumption is based on the legal perspective that courts conventionally adopt. According to this legal perspective, companies hold income beneficially because they exist as separate legal entities from their shareholders. Courts find themselves battling these opposing perspectives when applying the beneficial ownership test to conduit companies. In order to make income tax law work efficiently, courts that are obliged to determine whether to honour claims to treaty benefits made by conduit companies have preferred to employ the legal perspective. Courts have justified this approach by adopting surrogate tests for the actual beneficial ownership test. Most of the surrogate tests do not relate to the concept of ownership at all. This thesis categorises the surrogate tests as "substantive business activity" and "dominion". By analysing reported cases, the thesis identifies deficiencies in these tests. One of the proposed outcomes of the thesis is to suggest an alternative approach for deciding conduit company cases. The thesis suggests that courts should consider an arrangement as a whole and investigate reasons for the existence of an immediate recipient of passive income in the specific corporate structure. The thesis also recommends amendments in the official commentary on Articles 10, 11 and 12 of the OECD Model convention in order to address the conceptual shortcomings inherent in those Articles.

Trabajo fin Curso de Experto. Tutora: María Belén González Fernández. Este trabajo plantea la necesidad de que la Ley 22/2003, Concursal, incluya en el privilegio general de su artículo 91 los créditos reconocidos en resolución judicial firme y en el privilegio especial del artículo 90, al embargo anotado en un registro público. Nuestra legislación civil y la doctrina del Tribunal Supremo han construido un sólido edificio jurídico, protector del crédito y de la afección real, franqueable solo a través de la tercería y a salvo de la preferencia temporal, que la Ley Concursal ha venido a derruir, negando la tutela que por su naturaleza corresponde al crédito reconocido en una resolución judicial, y al embargo anotado en el registro en su ejecución. En consecuencia los jueces mercantiles, presionados además por la enorme afluencia de procesos concursales y la necesidad de allegar recursos, han cancelado las cargas anteriores y reintegrado los bienes a la masa activa en perjuicio del titular de la afección. Desde un punto de vista material, la situación creada atenta contra los derechos a la seguridad jurídica y a la tutela judicial efectiva recogidos en los artículos 9.3, 24.1 y 118 de la Constitución, y vacía de contenido los institutos de la afección y la firmeza. El Legislativo contribuyó al caos incumpliendo el mandato de la Disposición Final Trigésimo Tercera de la Ley Concursal, de tramitar con carácter urgente la Ley sobre Concurrencia y Prelación de Créditos, dejando sin resolver la falta de concordancia entre la Ley Concursal y su marco Civil. La reforma operada por la Ley 38/2011 no ha hecho más que agravar la situación, pues la nueva redacción del artículo 55.3 permite la cancelación de cargas anteriores en cualquier momento del proceso, en perjuicio del acreedor y a mayor gloria de la Administración, cuyas cargas no pueden cancelarse y del concursado, que siendo el principal responsable de la insolvencia, ve más cercano el convenio y más lejana la exigencia de las responsabilidades derivadas de una calificación culpable del concurso.