Bibliographie sélective OHADA

بعد بدايات بروز الحماية القانونية للحق الفكري في القرون الوسطى كان لابد من ايجاد الوسائل والتنظيمات القانونية لجمع هذه الاعمال الفكرية بمعية جهاز متخصص لحفظها ووقايتها لما تكوَنه من التراث الثقافي الوطني، فقد ظهرت عدة أنظمة لإيداع الأعمال الفكرية على اختلاف اعتباراتها، فمنها من نظر إليها كوسيلة للحماية والمحافظة وحصر العمل الفكري، ومنها من اعتبرها كشرط للحصول على الأرباح التجارية أو بصورة أخرى كإجراء ضروري من أجل عرضها على الجمهور، وتماشيا مع ذلك بدأت القوانين الدولية والوطنية في تنظيم هذه المسائل التي تؤطر إجراءات الإيداع وحماية الأعمال الفكرية. سار النظام التشريعي في الجزائري على غرار باقي التشريعات لتنظيم عملية الايداع القانوني للأعمال الفكرية حيث يرجع بدايات العمل بنظام الإيداع في الجزائر للقوانين الموجودة في فرنسا وتطبيقها في الجزائر فنظمت عملية الايداع بموجب أوامر الجنرال كافينياك في 13 مارس 1848و استمر العمل بنظام الإيداع القانوني على جملة من القوانين الفرنسية إلى غاية سنة 1996 أين تم إقرار قانون الإيداع الوطني الجزائري بموجب الأمر رقم 96-16 مؤرخ في 02 يوليو 1996 لوضع حد للتجاوزات والانتهاكات للموروث الفكري الوطني. After the beginnings of the Legal protection of intellectual right in the Middle Ages, that make it necessary to find the means and legal regulations to collect these intellectual works, With a specialized apparatus To save and protect them, As it forms a national cultural heritage. There have been several systems for filing intellectual works of different considerations, some of them viewed it as a means of protection, preservation and confinement of intellectual work, and some consider it a condition for commercial profit or otherwise necessary for public viewing, In line with this, the international and national laws have begun to regulate these issues, which frame deposit procedures and the protection of intellectual work. The legislative system in Algeria and the others legislations regulate the legal deposit of intellectual works, so the introduction of the deposit system in Algeria is due to the laws in France and their application in Algeria, the deposit was organized by General Caviniac's orders on March 13, 1848, that the legal deposit system continued on a number of French laws until 1996, the Algerian National Deposit Act was adopted by Order No. 96-16 dated 02 July 1996, to end abuses and violations of the national intellectual heritage.

Os regimes da propriedade intelectual enfrentam problemas de adaptação no cenário contemporâneo. O surgimento da Economia Criativa, de um lado, e a evolução do próprio conceito de arte, de outro, provocaram uma aproximação entre artigos industriais e obras artísticas, passando estas a serem produzidas também dentro de uma lógica comercial. Essas mudanças não foram acompanhadas pelo Direito, resultando em institutos jurídicos que hoje não se aplicam apropriadamente, ao tutelarem excessivamente bens considerados como artísticos (tais quais esculturas, desenhos, fotografias e filmes), ao mesmo tempo em que dispensam tratamento menos restritivo para produtos semelhantes, de setores econômicos em ascensão, como artigos de design. Este trabalho confirma a hipótese de que tal descompasso se deve à manutenção da divisão histórica das categorias da propriedade intelectual (a propriedade industrial e os direitos autorais), engessando a visão clássica da separação entre arte e indústria. Como solução, propomos uma série de diretrizes para orientar eventuais reformas legislativas, como também a doutrina e a jurisprudência, visando a reduzir a defasagem tanto entre os dois regimes jurídicos, quanto entre sua fundamentação original e a realidade atual de sua tutela.

This work is concerned with an analysis of the copyright protection of musical works. Musical works form part of the categories of works protected under copyright law. It would be easy to dismiss musical works as not warranting a serious study, as would for example, be warranted for “industrial property” rights such as patents and geographical indicators, or more “serious” copyrights such as architectural works and computer software. Such a perspective would however, not be cognisant of the significant contribution that the music industry, as part of the broader cultural and creative industries makes to the global economy. It has, for example, been shown that in 2013, the global cultural and creative industries contributed some US$2,250b, employing some 29,5 million people, with the music industry being one of the top three employers and with its revenues exceeding those of radio.1 A single successful musician can earn in excess of US$100m per annum,2 making the industry ripe for litigious claims. For this reason therefore a consideration of the legal rules that apply to the protection of musical works is crucial. There is currently no clear exposition and systematic analysis of the legal principles applicable to the field of music copyright and no work devoted to the in-depth delineation of the rights and sub-rights relating to musical copyright protection. This study seeks to address this research and knowledge gap by providing a historical and contextual analysis of the protection of musical works. The aim is to provide a complete picture of the milieu of music copyright protection to enable the reader to feel empowered in dealing with the subject-matter. This the writer does by mapping the historical development of music copyright protection in particular from eighteenth century England when the first copyright legislation was enacted, until the enactment of the British Copyright Act of 1911, which signalled the emergence of the “common law” copyright system. The writer then shows how this enactment shaped the development of modern music copyright law, and concludes by presenting a contextual consideration of the current South African law of music copyright and highlighting the challenges it is faced with.

L’évolution d’une économie industrielle vers une économie de la connaissance et du savoir a propulsé la propriété intellectuelle sur le devant de la scène. Désormais les droits intellectuels s’intègrent à tous les domaines de la vie moderne. De ce fait, le besoin de les protéger efficacement par des règles juridiques appropriées et d’inciter en conséquence les créateurs à produire de nouvelles créations est devenu une nécessité de premier ordre. Cependant, la spécificité de la nature de l’œuvre protégée par la propriété intellectuelle exige la prise en considération de multiples intérêts antagonistes. C’est pourquoi le législateur a cherché, au nom de l’intérêt général, à créer un juste équilibre interne entre les principaux intérêts présents au sein du régime de la propriété intellectuelle. Or, l’exercice des prérogatives octroyées par le régime de propriété intellectuelle effectué par le titulaire de droit a généré une importante expansion de ses intérêts au détriment des autres intérêts concurrents – présents dans la matière. Cette situation a provoqué, en conséquence, une rupture de l’équilibre interne de ce système, préétabli en amont par le législateur. Or, l’intérêt général peut jouer un rôle central dans le rétablissement d’un équilibre en la matière. Dans cette perspective, le juge peut, grâce à son pouvoir créateur de règles jurisprudentielles, se servir de l’intérêt général comme d’une ligne directrice servant à rétablir ce juste équilibre dans le système de la propriété intellectuelle. L’intérêt général justifie donc, tout autant que les limites intrinsèques aux droits de la propriété intellectuelle, les limites extrinsèques à ces droits

This thesis is a comparative analysis of the provisions on the seller’s duty to deliver the goods free from any third-party intellectual property rights (IPRs) under the United Nations Conventions on the International Sale of Goods (CISG) and the UK Sale of Goods Act 1979 (SGA). As a consequence of technological advancement, there has been an increased observance of the interaction between intellectual property rights (IPRs), which are intangible property rights, and tangible goods. As a result of this interaction, growing numbers of goods, which are either subject to IPRs as a whole or that possess an IP-protected component, have become subject to sales agreements. The circulation of the goods around the world increases the likelihood that third-party IPRs over the goods will be infringed. This risk of infringement also raises the possibility that the application of IP law remedies will prevent the buyer from reselling or using the goods in question. This study is concerned with the question of how the sale of goods is affected by third-party IPRs, and it proposes to undertake a comparative analysis of the provisions that determine the seller’s liability when third-party IPRs arise in relation to goods that are sold under the CISG and the SGA. It seeks to determine which instrument offers sufficient protection that will benefit the buyer. In attempting to reveal the sufficient protection, it also undertakes a comparative analysis of the remedies that are available to the buyer under the CISG and the SGA when third-party IPRs over the goods are raised. With regard to the widely acceptance of the CISG by 89 states, and the dominant role of English law in commercial law and its preference as a governing law to most contracts, it is aimed to determine the differences and similarities between the CISG and the SGA, and the practical consequences of their application to the contracts when third-party IPRs over the goods arise. The thesis will seek to determine if the text of the relevant CISG articles can be improved and will accordingly formulate proposals that work towards this outcome.

How do we legislate for the unknown? This work tackles the question from the perspective of copyright, analysing the judicial practice emerging from case law on new uses of intellectual property resulting from technological change. Starting off by comparing results of actual innovation-related cases decided in jurisdictions with and without the fair use defence available, it delves deeper into the pathways of judicial reasoning and doctrinal debate arising in the two copyright realities, describing the dark sides of legal flexibility, the attempts to ‘bring order into chaos’ on one side and, on the other, the effort of judges actively looking for ways not to close the door on valuable innovation where inflexible legislation was about to become an impassable choke point. The analysis then moves away from the high-budget, large-scale innovation projects financed by the giants of the Internet era. Instead, building upon the findings of Yochai Benkler on the subject of networked creativity, it brings forth a type of innovation that brings together networked individuals, sharing and building upon each other’s results instead of competing, while often working for non-economic motivations. It is seemingly the same type of innovation, deeply rooted in the so-called ‘nerd culture’, that powered the early years of the 20th century digital revolution. As this culture was put on trial when Oracle famously sued Google for reuse of Java in the Android mobile operating system, the commentary emerging from the surrounding debate allowed to draw more general conclusions about what powers the digital evolution in a networked environment. Lastly, analysing the current trends in European cases, the analysis concludes by offering a rationale as to why a transformative use exception would allow courts to openly engage in the types of reasoning that seem to have become a necessity in cases on the fringes of copyright.

Over the last years, academics, practitioners and policy makers have focused their attention on an emerging technology: three-dimensional printing (“3DP”). 3DP is often portrayed as a game changer, showing the potential to disrupt established socioeconomic paradigms and exert profound implications in disparate areas of law. 3DP not only is well integrated in the manufacturing industry, but also increasingly adopted at consumer level. Recent developments have made it possible for ordinary people to take an active role in the production, customization and distribution of goods, and likewise paved the way for the proliferation of new market entrants, such as 3DP online platforms. Against this background, this thesis aims to shed some light on the implications that 3DP may have for Intellectual Property Law. In particular, this work attempts to predict and grasp the consequences that the digitization of real world things may carry in the area of IP law, both from the side of protection and infringement. This contribution is intended to create general awareness about the current state of the art and likewise delineate possible future scenarios in the 3DP ecosystem. The research question at the core of the analysis is whether the current legal framework of different IPRs already offers suitable means for regulating the thin dividing line between the digital and the analogue world, or rather needs to be amended, in order to cope with such a fascinating reality. To this end, the analysis contributes insights to the best legal treatment that CAD files shall receive, in case such files embed products protected by copyright, designs, patents and trademarks. Hence, it addresses right owners’ concern that the online transmission of CAD files, combined with the ease of converting such files into the final printout, will facilitate mass-scale and worldwide infringement of all IPRs.

La détention et l’exploitation de l’information apparaissent au cœur du développement de l’économie contemporaine, faisant de l’identification ainsi que de la protection de l’information des enjeux permanents pour les opérateurs économiques. Mais toutes les informations ne se valent pas. Seules celles bénéficiant d’une protection directe ou indirecte et conférant un avantage concurrentiel font l’objet d’un contrôle attentif des entreprises et des autorités de concurrence. Dans ce contexte, les libertés économiques, circonscrites à la liberté contractuelle, la liberté d’entreprendre et la libre concurrence, constituent, alternativement, un guide, un support ou une limite à la divulgation de l’information protégée. Justifiant l’absence de divulgation de certaines informations protégées, les libertés économiques consacrent le respect des secrets d’affaires. A l’inverse, elles peuvent imposer une divulgation et en dicter les modalités. Suivant un mouvement de balancier, les conditions de divulgation de l’information protégée, au sein d’échanges informels, dans le cadre d’opérations de normalisation, ou dans une optique de libre mise à disposition, influencent à leur tour les libertés économiques qui s’en trouvent contraintes, renforcées ou renouvelées. Au regard de ces interactions constantes dessinant un cadre évolutif, il importe de s’interroger sur la réalité de l’autonomie de la volonté des opérateurs économiques dans la gestion de leurs informations protégées.

En el presente trabajo se propone estudiar al arbitraje en materia de propiedad intelectual desde una perspectiva procesal, con miras a contribuir a la eficiencia y eficacia de su procedimiento. La especial idoneidad del arbitraje como mecanismo de resolución de estas controversias, muestra la fuerte conexión entre los derechos de propiedad intelectual y el arbitraje. Sin embargo, del estudio empírico realizado se revela una disonancia entre el desarrollo de los derechos de propiedad intelectual y la evolución del arbitraje en la materia. A partir de esta primera constatación, se profundiza en la identificación de tres obstáculos clave en el funcionamiento del arbitraje y se sugiere recurrir al derecho procesal como método de solución de los mismos. Finalmente, se proporcionan herramientas concretas de solución en materia de arbitrabilidad, intervención de terceros y efectos del laudo. Todo lo anterior con el objetivo de consolidar al arbitraje como un mecanismo de resolución de disputas en materia de la propiedad intelectual.

La "gratuité" trouve à s’accorder avec le droit d’auteur et ce, de différentes manières.Il est ainsi possible, d’une part, d’envisager la « gratuité » en droit d’auteur sous l’angle de l’auteur en l’appréhendant comme étant le « moteur » de la gratuité en lui reconnaissant la faculté de réaliser des actes de cession ou de mise à disposition à titre gratuit. Néanmoins, si le Code de la propriété intellectuelle vient reconnaître cette faculté, il ne vient pas encadrer ces actes pour lesquels il peut ressortir, de la part de l'auteur, des attentes qui dépassent la notion même de « gratuité » dans son aspect premier. En ce sens, il est alors important de comprendre comment la "gratuité" peut être présente dans des actes qui, par définition, pourraient être qualifiés d’actes à titre onéreux.D’autre part, il est possible d’envisager la "gratuité" sous le champ de l’usage. En effet, la spécificité du droit d’auteur faisant que ce dernier englobe une partie des notions de droit public, notamment dans la recherche d’un équilibre entre intérêt privé et public, il apparaît opportun de s’arrêter sur ce pan de la "gratuité" qui se retrouve dans l’usage à titre gratuit au profit du public. Si la recherche de cet équilibre entre propriété privée et intérêt général profite au public, cette gratuité d’usage prévue par les textes voit son encadrement être modifié par l’évolution des usages. De plus, l'appréhension de la "gratuité" d'usage des biens culturels organisée économiquement dans l’environnement numérique ramène sensiblement la "gratuité marchande" à ce qu’elle était à l’origine : une stratégie commerciale. Ainsi, la notion d’usage "commercial" ou "non commercial" est corrélée à celui de l’usage à titre gratuit et tend même à encadrer ce dernier.

But de la recherche : déterminer la dépendance des caractéristiques des marques (perceptibilité visuelle, représentation graphique, le caractère distinctif, non-généricité etc.), sur les types généraux spécifiques de capacités intellectuelles et sur les caractéristiques conatives des consommateurs de la population générale, par application de nombreux tests. La recherche a été réalisée sur un échantillon de 206 sujets-consommateurs. Ils ont évalué la qualité des marques de commerce (déposées et refusées) pour différents types de produits et services (TM-1 test). Les sujets ont été testés avec 3 tests cognitifs et 6 tests conatifs. Méthodes quantitatives appliquées : paramètres élémentaires de la statistique descriptive ; corrélation ; analyse factorielle ; analyse de régression multivariée, analyse canonique des corrélations. Les résultats ont indiqué que les variables cognitives et conatives ont des relations statistiquement significatives avec les résultats de TM test (qualité des marques).

During the last two decades, there have been a number of policy and legislative changes in respect of South Africa’s intellectual property (IP) and the national system of innovation (NSI). In 2012, a Ministerial Review of the Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) landscape in South Africa made recommendations to improve the STI landscape and effectively the national system of innovation. The study provides a critical review of drafts of the national IP policy published in 2013 as well as the IP Framework released in 2016 for public comment. The review of the IP and the NSI are within the context of the National Development Plan (NDP), which outlines South Africa’s desired developmental goals. South Africa is part of the BRICS group of countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa). The South African economy is characterised by a desire to move away from being dependent on resources and commodities, to becoming a more knowledge based and innovation driven economy. It is hoped that such a move would assist the country to address some of the social and economic development challenges facing South Africa, as captured in the NDP. South Africa has a functioning IP system, but its relationship with South Africa’s development trajectory is not established. More particularly, the extent to which the IP system relates to the innovation system and how these two systems must be aligned to enable South Africa to transition successfully from a country based on the production of primary resources and associated commodity-based industries to a viable knowledge-based economy is unclear. The Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) provides that IP must contribute to innovation and to transfer of technology and knowledge in a manner that is conducive to social and economic welfare. Certain provisions set out the foundations of intellectual property systems within the context of each member state. This study has thus explored the complex, complementary and sometimes contested relationships between IP and innovation, with particular emphasis on the potential of an intellectual property system to stimulate innovation and foster social and economic development. The study has also analysed the interconnectivity of IP and innovation with other WTO legal instruments, taking into account South Africa’s positioning within the globalised economy and in particular the BRICS group of countries. The research involved a critical review of South Africa’s IP and innovation policies, as well as relevant legislation, instruments, infrastructure, IP and innovation landscape, and relationship with international WTO legal instruments, in addition to its performance, given the developmental priorities and the globalised economy. The research documents patenting trends by South Africans using European Patent Office (EPO), Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), United States Patents and Trademarks Office (USPTO) databases over the period 1996-2015. A comparative analysis of patenting trends amongst BRICS group of countries has also been documented. The study also documents new findings, observations and insights regarding South Africa’s IP and innovation systems. Some of these, particularly in relation to higher education and research institutions, are directly attributable to the Intellectual Property Rights from Publicly Financed Research and Development Act. More particularly, the public institutions are becoming relevant players in the NSI and are responsible for growth of certain technology clusters, in particular, biotechnology. At the same time, the study makes findings of a decline of private sector participation in patenting as well as R&D investment over the 20-year period. Recommendations are included regarding specific interventions to ensure coherence between the IP and innovation systems. Such coherence and alignment should strengthen the systems’ ability to stimulate innovation and foster inclusive development and competitiveness, which are relevant for addressing South Africa’s socio-economic development priorities.

O objetivo deste trabalho é realizar uma análise sistematizada acerca da proteção à propriedade intelectual no Brasil frente às necessidades específicas da indústria da moda. Este trabalho pretende realizar contribuição original à ciência jurídica brasileira não apenas com relação ao debate, ainda não realizado da forma aqui proposta quanto à indústria específica em âmbito acadêmico no Brasil, mas também realizar reflexão consistente quanto às consequências das particularidades e das demandas que cada vez mais buscam uma resposta eficiente do sistema jurídico. O sistema jurídico brasileiro parece oferecer à indústria da moda mecanismos suficientes para a proteção das criações da indústria. Este trabalho demonstrará tal conclusão por meio de análise dos resultados empíricos da pesquisa jurisprudencial realizada. Vale dizer que criações que não encontram proteção por meio do que há disponível no sistema jurídico brasileiro podem ter sido deixadas descobertas intencionalmente pelo legislador, a fim de que se encontre medida balanceada para observar a geração e a manutenção de incentivos para a criação e a inovação, de um lado, e o resguardo do objetivo de tutelar a concorrência, de outro lado. O resultado disso pode ser visto como o objetivo maior, trazido pela Constituição Federal, de progresso social e cultural e de desenvolvimento tecnológico e econômico do país, por meio do incentivo à inovação e da proteção equilibrada.

O produto do esforço intelectual humano é transportado para o mundo dos fatos por meio de determinada forma, cujo conceito proposto abrange todos os recursos colocados à disposição do homem para trazer à realidade objetiva concepções técnicas ou estéticas suscetíveis de receber a tutela do Estado. Com efeito, a forma une o concreto ao abstrato, tornando possível a organização do caos interno, próprio dos sentimentos e pensamentos humanos, além de permitir que a obra seja devidamente comunicada e, a partir daí, que se estabeleçam relações jurídicas entre ela e o seu criador, bem como com terceiros. No campo do direito de autor, a forma se exterioriza para, em seguida, retornar ao mundo interior, despertando os sentidos humanos, fenômeno que não ocorre com as formas técnicas, concebidas para operar efeitos na realidade objetiva e produzir resultados no mundo exterior ao homem. Nesse contexto, a afirmação de que propriedade intelectual é forma oferece uma nova perspectiva para estudar-se o sistema de proteção ao esforço intelectual humano, permitindo que o intérprete da lei tenha um guia para a solução do paradoxo da acumulação de diversas proteções sobre um único objeto, que pode revelar-se ao mesmo tempo belo e útil. Note-se, a propósito, que o sistema da propriedade intelectual é composto por institutos cujas esferas de proteção não se interpenetram, cobrindo áreas estanques do engenho humano, cada qual com seus fundamentos e requisitos próprios, voltados para a consecução de uma determinada finalidade. Como é de conhecimento geral, a única maneira de apropriar-se, com exclusividade, de conteúdo técnico é por meio da obtenção de uma patente, que protege soluções para problemas do nosso cotidiano, considerada a realidade objetiva, externa ao homem. Fixadas essas premissas, pode-se estabelecer uma relação de subsidiariedade entre a propriedade industrial e o direito de autor, porquanto, embora os inventores possam também ser considerados autores no sentido amplo do termo (pais das invenções), não poderão retirar do direito autoral fundamento válido para proteger o conhecimento técnico. Quanto ao confronto entre o direito de autor e os demais institutos da propriedade industrial, como, por exemplo, as marcas e os desenhos industriais, cumpre salientar que a definição das respectivas esferas de proteção também não autoriza que se conclua pela sobreposição, mas sim por uma saudável harmonização de direitos. Assim compreendida a problemática subjacente ao tema proposto, percebe-se que há, em verdade, apenas um conflito aparente entre o direito de autor e a propriedade industrial, o que permite que convivam em harmonia, com vistas a coibir a concorrência desleal e o aproveitamento parasitário de esforços e investimentos alheios. Por fim, em casos fronteiriços, a aplicação do princípio da subsidiariedade tal como enunciado acima, dissolve eventuais obstáculos, com vistas a que os direitos de propriedade intelectual sirvam para impulsionar o País na direção do desenvolvimento econômico, tecnológico e cultural, considerado, em todos os casos, o interesse social.

L'accord ADPIC a été accepté par la Tunisie comme un mal nécessaire afin d'obtenir des bénéfices commerciaux dans les secteurs de grand intérêt. Il était également considéré comme bien pensé car il accordait une période de transition aux PED afin qu'ils puissent adapter leurs systèmes à cet instrument exhaustif et établir un standard minimum qui pourrait s'appliquer à tous les pays et rattacher les DPI au commerce. La Tunisie constitue un cas d'analyse intéressant et ce, surtout comparativement aux autres pays qui ont maintenu une attitude de rejet par rapport aux traités classiques de PI. Notre pays était membre aux conventions de Paris et de Berne depuis plus d'un siècle. Il était certes le bon élève qui s'est harmonisé en développant une nouvelle culture de protection à la PI conformément au nouveau système international. La raison est que la PI est conçue afin d'être, dans la nouvelle économie cognitive, un outil important dans la compétitivité internationale. Elle constitue également un instrument pour attirer les IDE. En même temps, et comme le stipule l'ADPIC, la PI serait un composant essentiel dans la promotion de l'innovation et la facilité du transfert de technologie. Mais ce schéma d'harmonisation sur la base de prétendus standards minimums n'a pas satisfait l'engouement des pays industrialisés qui se sont lancés dans la conclusion d'accords commerciaux bilatéraux au-delà de l'ADPIC. Notre objectif est donc d'analyser ces présupposés et d'essayer d'expliquer ce qui s'est passé depuis l'accord ADPIC. La question est de savoir si le pays, en procédant de cette manière, avait réussi à établir cette articulation entre les considérations commerciales qu'exige l'ADPIC et les préoccupations internes se rapportant à la santé, l'agriculture, la diversité culturelle et l'environnement. Vingt trois ans après, le pays a-t-il tiré profit de l'alignement de son régime de PI sur l'accord ADPIC ? L'un des objectifs avoués de l'ADPIC était la diffusion du savoir et par là, l'amélioration des capacités R & D. Cependant, très peu de progrès a été réalisé, il semble même que la situation ait empiré.

Toute étude ou toute analyse des sûretés portant sur les divers biens immatériels — créances, brevets, marques, logiciels, par exemple — peut se révéler pour le moins délicate. La matière demeure caractérisée par une diversité de régimes applicables, qu’ils concernent les modalités de constitution ou de réalisation des sûretés susceptibles d’être mises en oeuvre. Différentes perspectives sont dès lors envisageables, qu’il s’agisse du regroupement en une seule et unique sûreté, d’une harmonisation de ces régimes ou encore de l’élaboration d’un régime primaire, complété par des règles spéciales. A study or analysis of securities in connection with various types of immaterial property — such as debts, patents, trademarks or software — is a perilous exercise. It must take into account a wide range of regulatory instruments addressing the various ways in which the rules are implemented with respect to both the constitution and the realization of security. This opens up several different prospects, such as consolidation into a single form of security, the harmonization of rules, or the creation of a primary scheme that can then be extended using special rules. Cualquier estudio (o cualquier análisis) de las garantías que trata sobre los diferentes bienes inmateriales (como por ejemplo las deudas, las patentes, las marcas y los programas) podría resultar — a lo menos — delicado. El ámbito se caracteriza por poseer una diversidad de regímenes aplicables vinculados con los modos de constitución o de realización de las garantías susceptibles de ejecución. Por ende, se pueden considerar diversas perspectivas, independientemente de que se trate de un conjunto de garantías reagrupado bajo una sola y única de garantía, o que se refiera a una armonización de estos regímenes, o que sea más bien la concepción de un régimen principal que se complementa con reglas especiales.