Le déséquillibre des relations de crédit entre la banque et les usagers - Sow, Djibril (Université Cheikh Anta Diop, 2008)
L’examen des relations de crédit entre la banque et les usagers révèle que ces dernières sont déséquilibrées au profit du banquier. Le déséquilibre en question est essentiellement un déséquilibre en pouvoir, fondé principalement sur la nature même de la convention de crédit en tant que contrat d’adhésion et contrat intuitu personae. À l’aide de l’approche systémique, de l’analyse, de la synthèse et de la ponctuation, sans oublier la méthode comparative, notre étude a consisté à l’examen des différentes manifestations de ce déséquilibre et des réactions qu’il a suscitées. Ce déséquilibre se manifeste d’abord par la prépondérance de la volonté du banquier, conséquence du déclin de l’autonomie de la volonté. Cette prépondérance se manifeste aussi bien dans les préalables, que dans la naissance des relations de crédit. Dans les préalables, elle s’exprime à travers l’exigence de compte en banque ainsi qu’à travers l’exigence de solvabilité, dont la satisfaction est une condition sine qua non vers la naissance des relations de crédit. Ensuite, dans la naissance desdites relations, la prépondérance de la volonté du banquier réside dans la détermination unilatérale des clauses de la convention de crédit par ce dernier. L’usager dont le choix est également limité par plusieurs contraintes, est réduit à adhérer à ces clauses, d’autant plus que le dernier mot revient au banquier, compte tenu de l’absence de droit au crédit tenant à l’intuitus personae. Cette prépondérance de la volonté du banquier se concrétise par la conclusion de la convention de crédit. Au delà de la prépondérance de la volonté du banquier dans la mise en place des relations de crédit, le déséquilibre de ces dernières se manifeste aussi par le rôle considérable des techniques et pratiques bancaires qui, n’étant pas neutres, constituent une forme de domination indirecte du banquier. D’abord, les techniques de gestion bancaire dominent les relations de crédit aussi bien objectivement, que subjectivement devant une impuissance marquée de l’usager. Ensuite, les usages bancaires, forgés par la pratique bancaire, reflètent la volonté du banquier qui est à leur source. Ils dominent les relations de crédit à plusieurs niveaux, malgré certaines limites tenant à l’ordre public. Le déséquilibre des relations de crédit, compte tenu de ses conséquences, a nécessité des réactions. Celles-ci consistent dans sa modération aussi bien par les règles du droit commun, qu’à travers celles du droit du crédit. Dans la première hypothèse, la modération s’obtient par les obligations et la responsabilité du banquier, face à celles de l’usager. Dans la seconde hypothèse, elle s’obtient à travers des règles du droit du crédit protégeant les usagers ; à côté des politiques publiques de protection spécifique des usagers les plus vulnérables en matière de crédit. L’étude du déséquilibre des relations de crédit entre la banque et les usagers permet de conclure que ce dernier tient à l’essence même de la convention de crédit. C’est pourquoi les réactions tentant d’y faire face n’aboutissent qu’à sa modération, ce qui l’atténue fortement. De ce constat, on peut estimer que l’amélioration des relations de crédit et de l’accès au crédit nécessite une révision de la convention de crédit.
Keywords: Banque; Client; Crédit

As novas estruturas organizacionais das bolsas - Dutra, Marcos Galileu Lorena (Universidade de São Paulo, 2008)
O presente trabalho investiga as novas estruturas organizacionais das bolsas de valores e das bolsas de mercadorias e futuros, implementadas após os processos de desmutualização. É feita uma análise da importância das bolsas para o desenvolvimento econômico, bem como do seu papel de entidades auto-reguladoras. São ainda apresentados os principais fatores que motivaram a conversão das bolsas de associações mutualísticas para sociedades anônimas, bem como as conseqüências dessa alteração organizacional. O trabalho explora também as alterações regulamentares ocorridas no exterior, que buscaram evitar o surgimento de conflitos de interesses entre o papel de entidades auto-reguladoras das bolsas e seu objetivo de maximização do valor das ações. Realiza-se, por fim, uma análise crítica da Instrução CVM n.O 461/07, norma editada pela Comissão de Valores Mobiliários (CVM) que regula a organização, o funcionamento e as atividades das bolsas no Brasil. O trabalho conclui que a norma editada pela CVM utiliza diversos mecanismos de controle que objetivam evitar a ocorrência de conflitos de interesses, com o estabelecimento de práticas de governança corporativa internamente às bolsas, na esteira das experiências observadas em outros países. The present work examines the new organizational structure of the stock and derivatives exchanges, implemented after their demutualization process. It analyses the importance of the stock exchange for the economical development, as well as its role as self-regulatory organization. There are also presented the main factors that motivated the conversion of the stock exchange, from mutual associations to corporations, as well as the consequences of this organizational change. The work also explores the regulatory changes made in foreign countries, that aim to avoid the conflict of interests between the role of the exchanges as selfregulatory entities and their goal of maximizing value. Finally, a critical analysis is made, regarding CVM´s Instruction n.º 461/07, rule issued by the Brazilian Securities and Exchange Comission (Comissão de Valores Mobiliários - CVM) that deals with the structure and functioning of the Brazilian exchanges. The work concludes that the rule issued by the CVM uses many mechanisms of control that aim to avoid the conflict of interests, settling high level corporate governance practices inside the stock exchange, in accordance to international regulatory standards.
Keywords: Bolsa de valores; Bourse; Derivatives Exchange; Governança corporativa; Mercado de capitais; Sociedade por ações; Stock Exchange; Valeurs mobilières; Valores mobiliários

La responsabilité bancaire à l'égard des entreprises en difficulté - Capoen, Anne-Laure (Université Toulouse 1 Capitole, 2008)
L'article L 650-1 du Code de commerce, issu de la loi de sauvegarde du 26 juillet 2005, procède à un allègement de la responsabilité du banquier : celui-ci n'est plus responsable des préjudices subis du fait des concours accordés à une entreprise en difficulté. Si la légitimité de la mesure a été remise en cause, elle répond néanmoins à un objectif d'intérêt général : promouvoir la fourniture de crédit. La recevabilité de l'action en responsabilité est toutefois admise dans trois cas : la fraude, l'immixtion caractérisée dans la gestion du débiteur et la prise de garanties disproportionnées, qui constituent les trois seuls cas d'ouverture de l'action pour soutien abusif. Ainsi les banquiers bénéficient-ils désormais d'une immunité dont les causes de déchéance tendent à la moralisation du droit des affaires. Mais cet allègement ne saurait concerner les autres hypothèses de mise en cause de la responsabilité du banquier. Celui-ci reste responsable en cas de rupture abusive de crédit ou de non respect de ses obligations contractuelles en particulier envers les emprunteurs non avertis. La direction de fait est également source de responsabilité civile. Enfin, la fourniture de moyens ruineux pour éviter ou retarder l'ouverture d'une procédure collective engage la responsabilité pénale du banquier, devenu complice. Les conséquences de la responsabilité sont en outre particulièrement dissuasives, en particulier la nullité des garanties constituées. Cet allègement de la responsabilité constitue donc une chance pour les banquiers de s'investir dans le financement des entreprises, encore faut-il que cette occasion soit saisie, sans toutefois tomber dans l'excès de crédit.
Keywords: Banques; Crédit; Droit des affaires; Entreprises en difficulté; France; Responsabilité

Crossing the Wires: the Interface between Law and Accounting and the Discourse Theory Potential of Telecommunications Regulation - Carter, David Bernard (Victoria University of Wellington, 2008)
Regulating telecommunications is complex: international experience indicates that there is no 'successful' regulatory framework due to the balancing of industry and regulatory interests (Laffont & Tirole, 2000, p. 13). The New Zealand 'light-handed' regulatory experiment failed and the 1999 General Election presented an opportunity for change in telecommunications. The Labour-led Government in implementing a policy of 'responsible re-regulation' enacted the Telecommunications Act 2001, signalling the passage of "landmark telecommunications legislation ..." (Swain, 2001d). Within the Telecommunications Act 2001, 'cost' assumed a central regulatory role. It is this move to cost that this thesis considers in identifying, developing, and critiquing the interface of law and accounting. The thesis examines the increasing call for accounting information in law and regulation by interrogating the use, presentation, and reception of accounting to examine the interface between law and cost in the regulation of telecommunications. The Telecommunications Act 2001 incorporates total service long run incremental costing as the 'costing technique' for interconnection access and annual net costing for the Telecommunications Service Obligation. Through interrogating 'cost' as an accounting technology, in contrast to the economic and legal conception of cost as a simple, objective concept, the thesis illustrates the role of cost at methodological, technical, and political levels, and the challenges that this poses for telecommunications regulation. The thesis articulates the relevance of discourse theory to the interface of law and accounting. Consequently, the thesis investigates the formation and discursive enunciation of standpoints of political identities characterised by antagonism and uncertainty. This includes identifying attempts by interested parties, including industry actors, stakeholders, and the Government and its agents, to articulate 'new' discourses centred on nodal points around 'cost'. The rhetorical analysis examines how actors articulate the metaphorical element of 'cost' in agitating for particular costing methods to be included in the legislation. The empirical analysis examines the process of rhetorical condensation as arguments for and against the incorporation of total service long run incremental costing and net costing came to signify the complete failure of the light-handed regulation. Then, by examining the politics following the enactment of legislation, this condensation is unpacked. The analysis of the contestation over interpreting and implementing the regulation illustrates displacement of the 'common' signifier resulting in confusion and disappointment in relation to the aims of the new regulatory regime.

Bağımsız denetim sözleşmesi - Köksal, Aytaç (Ankara Üniversitesi, 2008)
Bağımsız denetim sözleşmesi, bağımsız denetçiler ile denetime tabi müşteriler arasında yapılan bir sözleşmedir. Bağımsız denetim sözleşmesi, düzenlemelerde belirtilen unsurları içermelidir. Bağımsız denetçi ile denetim müşterisi, sözleşmenin unsurları üzerinde anlaşmalıdırlar. Bir bağımsız denetim sözleşmesi yapıldığında, bağımsız denetçiler ile denetim müşterileri karşılıklı borç altına girerler.Bağımsız denetçi, denetim müşterisinin finansal tablolarını denetleme ve finansal tabloların, finansal raporlama standartları ile düzenlemelere uygunluğu konusunda bir görüş açıklama borcu altındadır. Bağımsız denetçi, denetimi yürütürken, uluslararası denetim standartlarını, etik standartları ve düzenlemeleri dikkate almalıdır. Bağımsız denetçiler, bağımsız denetim faaliyetinde her zaman mesleki özeni göstermek zorundadırlar. Eğer, denetim raporu gerçeği yansıtmaz ise, bundan zarar gören denetim müşterisi ile üçüncü kişilerin uğradıkları zararlardan, bağımsız denetçiler sorumlu olurlar. Bağımsız denetçi, ayrıca, bağımsız denetim raporunu zamanında denetim müşterisine teslim etmelidir. Bunun yanında, bağımsız denetçi, düzenlemelerde belirtilen süre içerisinde çalışma kâğıtlarını saklamalılar ve bu süre sona ermeden, çalışma kâğıtlarını yok etmemeli veya atmamalıdırlar. Bağımsız denetçi, denetim müşterisine ait sırları açıklamamalı, kendisinin veya bir diğer kişinin yararına kullanmamalıdır.Denetim müşterisi, bağımsız denetçilere, denetim ücretini ödemeli ve ayrıca, denetim ile ilgili kayıt, belge ve diğer bilgileri bağımsız denetçiye vermelidir. The independent audit agreement is made between independent auditors and the clients who are dependent on audit. The agreement should include terms which are showed by regulations. The auditors and the audit clients must agree on the terms of the agreements. When to be acted the agreement, the auditors and the client? have mutually liablity.The auditors are liable to audit the clients? financial statements and to express an opinion on if the financial statements are suitable the financial reporting standards and the regulations. While performing audit, the auditors should observe in international auditing standards, the ethical standards and regulations. The auditors should always have a duty to provide professional care when performing audit. If the auditors prepare a misleading audit reports, they will liable to the clients and third parties because of their loss was incurred. Also, the auditors should deliver the audit report to the client on time which they agree on. Besides, the auditors should save the audit documentation some time which is showed by regalitations and shouldn?t the delete and discard audit documentation before the end of that time. The auditors also shouldn?t disclose confidential information of the clients? or not use this information for the personal or the other persons? advantage.The audit clients? pay the audit fee and also give the records, documentation and other information requested in connection to with the audit to the independent auditors. Finally, when the auditors deliver the audit report to, the audit clients should accept it.
Keywords: Audit reports; Auditing standards; Banka hukuku; Banking law; Bağımsız denetim; Bağımsız denetim kuruluşları; Bağımsız dış denetim; Capital Market Law; Commercial Code; Commercial law; Denetim raporları; Denetim standartları; Independent audit; Independent auditing companies; Independent external auditing; Responsibility; Sermaye Piyasası Kanunu; Sorumluluk; Ticaret Kanunu; Ticaret hukuku